UNIT 2

Sociocultural Theory: author

Behaviourism: author

Acculturation model: author

Universal Grammar: author

Cognitivism: author

Interaction Hypothesis: author

Skinner tried to analyse language behaviour under the term [blank_start]operant conditioning[blank_end] involving 3 external factors: frequency, imitation and reinforcement.

[blank_start]Social dominance[blank_end]: the native culture may be superior, inferior or equal in terms of politics, culture or technology. If they view their culture as superior, they may not learn the second language.

[blank_start]Integration patterns[blank_end]: associated with the eagerness of the individual to keep their own cultural identity.

According to Chomsky, children are born with [blank_start]Language Acquisition Devices[blank_end].

• Acquisition: it is a [blank_start]subconscious[blank_end] process, identical to the one that children experience with their mother tongue. It comes about through [blank_start]meaningful interaction[blank_end]. • Learning: it is a [blank_start]conscious[blank_end] process which leads to knowledge about [blank_start]rules[blank_end].

According to the Input hypothesis, learners acquire language when they are exposed to comprehensible input, that is, information a little bit beyond their current level of competence (I+1).

Long's Interaction Hypothesis agrees with...

The most outstanding concept of Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory is the [blank_start]Zone of Proximal Development[blank_end], which relates to the difference between what an individual can achieve independently and what they can achieve through guidance and scaffolding

Environmentalist theories suggest that the individual’s environment shapes both [blank_start]learning[blank_end] and [blank_start]behaviour[blank_end], that is, that the individual’s experience is of more significance to development than its [blank_start]innate contributions[blank_end].

• [blank_start]Attitude[blank_end]: the feelings of the native and target cultures toward each other may impact language learning.

• Enclosure: when cultures share social [blank_start]facilities[blank_end], enclosure is low, supporting language learning.

• [blank_start]Cultural congruence[blank_end]: the less similar the two cultures are, the bigger the social distance.

• [blank_start]Cohesiveness[blank_end]: strong contact within the native culture with few contacts outside the community increases the social distance.

Nativist theories hold that language acquisition is an innate [blank_start]human ability[blank_end]. Thus, human abilities and [blank_start]developmental processes[blank_end] are encoded at birth, and language acquisition occurs as a natural part of human [blank_start]experience[blank_end].

Interactionist theories rely both on [blank_start]innate[blank_end] and [blank_start]environmental[blank_end] factors. According to these theories, children learn language out of a desire to [blank_start]communicate[blank_end] with the world around them. Hence, language emerges from [blank_start]social interaction[blank_end].

The Interaction Hypothesis is a theory proposing that one of the most effective methods in second language learning is by means of [blank_start]personal[blank_end] and [blank_start]direct[blank_end] [blank_start]interaction[blank_end].

In Long's view, what learners need is...

Vygotsky believed that learning is an [blank_start]active[blank_end] and [blank_start]constructive[blank_end] process, where language is developed from social interactions. According to this theory, second language learners advance to higher levels when they interact with more knowledgeable speakers, such as a [blank_start]teacher[blank_end]. Thus, the [blank_start]linguistic environment[blank_end] plays a crucial role in language acquisition.

Interlanguage is the system which has a structurally status between the native language and the target language.

Negotiation of meaning can be thus defined as the process by which addresser and addressee [blank_start]interpret[blank_end] the [blank_start]utterance[blank_end] and [blank_start]adjust[blank_end] linguistic [blank_start]forms[blank_end], grammatical structures or message [blank_start]content[blank_end] until they reach mutual understanding.

Negotiation of meaning involves several communicative strategies: • [blank_start]Language transfer[blank_end], which consists of attributing to the target language all features of their first-language translation equivalent. • [blank_start]Avoidance[blank_end] and [blank_start]overuse[blank_end], which consist of avoiding structures which are found to be difficult, and using forms which are known rather than trying out new structures, respectively. • [blank_start]Paraphrasing[blank_end], which consists of repeating the utterance using different words or expressions. • [blank_start]Overgeneralization[blank_end], which consists of applying a rule or pattern in a situation in which it does not apply in the target language. • [blank_start]Simplification[blank_end], which consists of reduction of the language due to inability or insecurity of learners.

The awareness of errors is important to teachers and learners, since it enables them to check their [blank_start]progress[blank_end] and enhance their [blank_start]communicative skills[blank_end]. Hence, studying errors serve two main purposes: they provide [blank_start]data[blank_end], and they indicate which parts of the curriculum are the most difficult for students.