Population and Fertility Trends Macro-level issues influence population growth Access to birth control China’s one child policy General fertility rate (women ages 15 to 44) # of children born per 1,00 women Better than other methods like “crude fertility rate” (per 1,00 people)   Costs and Rewards Economic costs (direct costs) and Opportunity costs (lack of flexible schedule) 85% of people said their relationship with their children was the most fulfilling 15% said their career   Childfree The rate of childfree individuals has remained about the same, depending on the historical period 16% of women between the ages of 40 and 44 Hispanics least likely to be childfree   Infertility Issues Surrogacy Unregulated legal issues such as abortion Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) includes all fertility treatments In vitro fertilization Most common Ovulation stimulation drugs, eggs removed and fertilized in a dish with sperm, then implanted in uterus ¼ to ⅓ result in birth How many embryos should be implanted?   Childbirth Stages of pregnancy First trimester (weeks 1-12): hormonal changes affect almost every organ system in the body Second trimester (weeks 13-28): many find worse symptoms going away, body changes Third trimester (weeks 29-40): more body change discomfort Stages of labor First: cervix dilates, contractions Second: pushing and delivery, may have an episiotomy (cut) Third: delivery of placenta Wait six weeks before exercise or sex Medicalization of childbirth Around 33% of all US births are c-sections, which is a 50% increase since 2000 Birth centers - facility that’s not a hospital Midwife- health care provider Doula- childbirth “coach”   Adoption Closed- there is no interaction or identification between birth parents and adoptive families Open- identity & contact information are shared between both parties Gays and Lesbians Some states and organizations ban gay and lesbian adoption Ban lifted in Florida in 2010   Transition to Parenthood Lack of sleep Little experience in childcare Change in relationship dynamic Sometimes takes time to feel an emotional bond to child Women more likely to suffer from post-partum depression when they feel lack of support   Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor stage (Birth-2 yrs) Motor activity without use of symbols. All things learned are based on experiences, or trial and error. Object permanence - knowing that an object still exists even if it’s hidden Preoperational stage (2-7 years) Young children can think about things symbolically. The ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other than itself. Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. Concrete Operational stage (7-11 years) The beginning of logical or operational thought, the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically trying things out). Conservation - the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes. Formal Operational stage (11 years and over) The ability to think about abstract concepts and logically test hypotheses.   The Looking Glass Self Created by Charles Cooley (1902) We imagine how we must appear to others in a social situation. We imagine and react to what we feel their judgment of that appearance must be. We develop our sense of self and respond through this perceived judgments of others.   Social Learning Theory The view that people learn by observing others Agents of socialization - family, school, peers, and  media Social Class (Kohn) Social class is one of the strongest influences on what and how parents teach their children Working class parents, who are closely supervised and expected to follow orders at work, typically emphasize the importance of obedience and conformity Parents from the middle and professional classes, who have more freedom and flexibility in their work, tend to give their children more freedom to make their own decisions and to be creative

Focus on Meta-Analysis Over 300 relevant research works, including peer-reviewed material, dissertations, and books 88 studies presented detailed data 36,309 participants 1938-2000   Corporal Punishment “The use of physical force with the intention of causing a child to experience pain but not injury for the purposes of correction or control of the child’s behavior” Continuum of physical acts   Corporal Punishment Outcomes Immediate compliance Decreased moral internalization “Does not teach children the reasons for behaving correctly, does not involve communication of the effects of children’s behaviors on others, and may teach children the desirability of not getting caught” Decreased quality of relationships Fear, anxiety, and anger Decreased child (and later adult) mental health Harsh punishment associated with depression Increased aggression (as a child and adult) Increased criminal and antisocial behavior (as a child and adult) Increased risk of abusing own child or spouse Increased risk of being a victim of physical abuse   Immediate Compliance Depends on goals of parent May be necessary when a child is in immediate danger Not associated with moral internalization However children are more likely to accept if used consistently and children believe it is used in their best interest   Critiques Can only prove correlation, not causation Inconsistent styles of punishment Few studies ask parents about both frequency and severity Rarely occurs in isolation   Parent Characteristics Same characteristics as abuse Age - 20s to 30s Gender - women or same Parent temperament Use by warm parent more likely to achieve positive outcomes Parent psychological functioning Parent beliefs   Family Characteristics As family size increases Unhappy partnership Single parents Race Higher in Black homes, lowest in Asian homes As socioeconomic status declines   World-Wide Sweden (1979) among 35-40 other countries to ban corporal punishment Decrease in negative teenage behaviors following this change   Child Abuse and Maltreatment The infliction of physical injury on a child Punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking or otherwise harming a child Sometimes an unintentional result of over-punishment One in seven children   Types of Child Maltreatment Neglect - 60% Multiple - 13% Physical abuse - 11% Sexual abuse - 8% Emotional & psychological abuse - 4% Other - 4%   Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Traumatic childhood events 10 types: physical abuse, verbal abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, and emotional neglect;  a parent who’s an alcoholic, a mother who’s a victim of domestic violence, a family member in jail, a family member diagnosed with a mental illness, and the disappearance of a parent through divorce, death or abandonment Higher risk: children younger than 4, special needs   Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Outcomes Health (obesity, diabetes, depression, suicide attempts, STDs, heart disease, cancer, stroke, COPD, broken bones) Behaviors (smoking, alcoholism, drug use) Life potential (graduation rates, academic achievement, time lost from work) Increases likelihood of crime Juvenile arrest - 59% increase Adult arrest - 29% increase Violent crime (black children) - 30% increase   Sexual Abuse Behavioral problems More likely to set fires and abuse animals More likely to be violent adults 95% of teenage prostitutes sexually abused More likely to occur within a family than outside the family   Sexual Abuse Signs Aversion to particular person Change in eating, trouble sleeping, bed wetting Sudden lack of interest in school Sudden desire for privacy, or separation from family Irritation of genitals

Cross-Cultural Marriage is found in every society Micro - personal relationship Macro - influence of culture around us The role of parents   Marriage in US History Colonial America Wives didn’t have the right to vote, couldn’t be charged for a crime Some Native American tribes allowed premarital sex, divorce, and remarriage 19th Century Changes “All persons are equal before the law, so that no person can hold another as a slave.” 1848 Women’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls After the Industrial Revolution Changing role of youth Sexual revolution (automobile) Changing life-course (gender roles)   Race and Marriage Blacks have a lower rate of marriage in the US Unstable work, lower pay Imbalanced sex ratio Education Waiting for the right person, or stable employment   Delayed Marriage 18 to 34 year-old women are half as likely to be married today as in 1940 62% to 30% Median age at first marriage had increased from 21 to 27   Homogamous and Heterogamous Marriage Homogamous marriage -  marriage between individuals who are, in some culturally-important way, similar to each other Heterogamous marriage -  marriage between two individuals that differ in a certain criterion Interracial marriages Anti-miscegenation laws - laws that criminalize interracial marriage, and sometimes sex between members of different races Interfaith marriages   Happiness Married men often report being happier, healthier, and financially better off than singles and cohabitators Single and married women report similar levels of happiness Social capital   Types of Marriages Conflict-Habituated Fighting is normal Devitalized Time together due to obligation “Empty love” on Sternberg’s Triangle Passive-Congenial Little conflict or excitement Vital Physical and emotional intimacy important Total Few independent activities   Successful Marriage Factors Type of relationship with parents Quality and stability of parents’ marriage Shared values, goals, and characteristics Religious faith Frequency and satisfaction with sexual relationships Satisfaction with gendered division of labor

History of Labor Industrialization in the 19th century Women in the labor force Married women less likely By 1980s most mothers worked Change in technology and work Communication Outsourcing   Recession Late 2000s to early 2010a Decline in economic activity ½ of adults 25 or older earning minimum wage Not as simple as increasing minimum wage However, minimum wage is not enough to support a family, which does impact society Health insurance   Work at Home Gendered division of labor   Work-Family Balance Work-family conflict Role overload (too many different roles Spillover Part-time work Lower pay for some work   Childcare Relatives Daycare facilities Nannies and babysitters VPK free for Florida children ages 4 and 5 VPK - Voluntary Prekindergarten Education Program

Definition of Crisis Time of relative instability (involves change) Turning point with the potential for positive effects, negative effect, or both   Types of Stressors Addition of a family member Loss of a family member Ambiguous loss (loss that occurs without closure or understanding) Sudden, unexpected change Ongoing family conflict Caring for a dependent, ill, or disabled family member Demoralizing event   Stressors Daily family hassles (ex. child coming down with chicken pox) put demands on a family Sometimes everyday demands pile up and result in “stressor overload”   General Adaptation Syndrome Alarm reaction Resistance Exhaustion   ABC-X Model of Family Stress and Coping (A) -  the stressor event (B) - the resources available to a family (C) - the family's perceptions of the stressor (X) - the likelihood of crisis Variables B and C determine whether the stressor event (A) results in a crisis

Divorce Refined divorce rate Focuses on married people that get divorced rather than the crude divorce rate, which includes all people About 1/3 of people who have ever been married have also been divorced Historical changes Mid-1800s “cruelty” of wife trying to break out of traditional role. Hit a peak in 1970s with nearly 23 divorces per 1,000 married women (higher than today’s rate)   Micro-level Factors Intergenerational transmission of divorce Age at marriage Average age of first divorce - 30 years old Parental status (having young children) Race and ethnicity Hispanics & Asians - least likely to divorce Education level   Macro-level Factors Level of socioeconomic development Dominant religion practiced Divorce laws Status of women, including employment situation General attitudes towards divorce   Experiencing Divorce Pre-separation (thinking about benefits) Early separation (facing issues like moving out) Mid-separation (facing realities of daily living) Late separation (some may continue to work on problems or reconcile) Legal separation   His and Her Divorce Financial (Women) Usually left with custody Lower earning power is exacerbated by child care responsibilities Financial (Men) Overall economic quality of a man's life usually increases Continues to earn more but bears fewer family expenses Emotional (Women) Usually initiate divorce Emotional (Men) Prone to deeper depressions and more substance abuse after divorce Start to mourn later in a divorce, thus extending the grieving process More likely to use actions rather than words to express their feelings Women are likely to experience more financial distress, while men are likely to experience more long-term emotional distress   Co-Parenting Legal custody - legal authority to make decisions Sole physical custody - legally lives with one parent and visits the other Joint physical custody - child spends substantial time living with both parents Child snatching More than 200 children a day Most common type of kidnapping About ½ of couples have a court order or official agreement regarding child support   Children of Divorce Short-term effects Loss of parent Reduced standard of living Academic performance Levels of psychological well-being Long-term effects More likely to become teen parents Depression Behavioral problems   Dating After Divorce Depends on length of marriage Depends on age at divorce Later-life cohabiting unions tend to be more stable and this decision tends to occur early in the relationship   Remarriage Mixed results on happiness post-divorce Ten years later about ½ of women and ⅓ of men still felt anger towards their ex-spouse People who remarry tend to be happier No evidence of rebound effect More likely to end in divorce than first marriage   Remarriage Statistics 39% of women within 3 years 54% of women within 5 years 75% of women by 10 years 21% of those currently married have been married at least twice   Parenting Post Divorce Adjustment to divorce best predicted by mother’s adjustment to divorce and ability to parent About 83% of custodial parents are mothers Single fathers spend more time caring for very young children than married fathers, but still far less time than single or married mothers. Fathers tend to lack confidence in their parenting abilities   Stepfamilies Common but expectations and obligations are ambiguous About 17% of children live in stepfamilies