Pressure Groups

Nature & function of pressure groups
1. Definition: Association that may be formal/informal whose purpose is to further the interests of a specific section of society or to promote a particular cause by influencing gov/public/both.
  1. 1)Influence decisions, dont expect to make decisions themselves.
  2. 2)May seek to influence not just decisions themselves but details of those decisions & their implementation. E.g Health & Social Care Act which passed through parl 2011-12. Groups campaigned on issue of NHS reform (British Medical Association & Royal College of Nursing) failed to stop the legislation, which gov had HofC majority but campaigned for ammendments to bill to ensure it maintained principles of a free health service in UK.
  3. 3)Operate on relatively narrow range of issues often a single issue (e.g Plane Stupid-emerged 2005 & campaigned against expansion of airports). Recent single issue group= Justice for Gurkhas campaign 2010 (natives of Nepal who traditionally foughtin British army) should have right to settle in Britian after retirement. These issues only affected few 100,000 people & applied to specific purposes. Multi issue groups may embrace whole range of related polices (e.g trade unions campaign on behalf of workers not just terms of wages but also pension provision health & saftey, labour conditions & social security rights).
  4. 4)Operate at different levels of gov- must identify where key decisions made then apply their pressure to that location. Having done so they seek to entre consultation with gov:...
    1. ...level of policy bodies, ministers & civil servants. Usually at early stages of policy development, many gov policies take several years to develop. During this time are considered by variety of committees & agencies. Begin to take shape=ministers & civil servants become involved. Details are published = MPs, peers & media will seek to add contributions to debate. Public opinion considered. All happens before legislation appears at Westminster. To be successful they need to become involved at every stage.
    2. ...Westminster Parl. For national policy when its passed through parl in form of legislation. Pressure groups operate in both houses & their legislative committees.
    3. ...Welsh, Scottish, Northern Ireland or London govs when issues regional in nature.
    4. ...Local gov when issues are local.
    5. ...Issues resolved at European Union level (agriculture, fisheries & trade) force pressure groups to work with relevant institutions (European Commission, European Parl & Council of Ministers.
  5. 5)Operate in law courts. Its when policys being implemented. Pressure groups may take cases to court where they feel section of societys being discrimminated against/ feel policy isnt being implemented fairley/even handed way. Pressure group activity in courts:
    1. November 2009 in Supreme Court. Office of Fair Trading VS Barclays Bank & others- several banks backed by British Bankers Association successfully overturned ruling that Office of Fair Trading could investigate their system of charging customers for unauthorised overdrafts. E.g of pressure groups ranged against each other in courts. Unsuccessful Office of Fair Trading was representing interests of bank customers.
    2. March 2010 in High Court. Hillingdon VS Secretary of State for Transport. Coalition of environmental groups inc Greenpeace & Campaign to Protect Rural England successfully forced gov to conduct additional reviews into decison to build 3rd Heathrow airport runway, on grounds that plans conflicted with offical carbon emissions control targets. Successful appeal.
    3. Feburary 2012 in Suprme Court. Ravat VS Haliburton. Various trade unions brought case to claim that protection from unfair dismissal extended to British workers emplyed overseas. Successful appeal.
2. Functions of pressure groups
  1. Key part in gov process. Involvement at all stages of policy & decision making process helps to inform gov itself & ensures interests & views of sections of public taken into account. They can improve quality of policy making e.g. Nation Farmers Union (NFU) help to shape agricultural policy
  2. Helps individual MPs or peers who are trying to promote private members' legislation. E.g groups from music industry supported action in HofL which led to Live Music Act in 2012, making it easier for music to be licensed for small venues.
  3. Representative function. Either represent specific sections of public or claim to represent best interests of whole community. E.g Age UK represent interests of elderly. Known as functional representation since pressure groups are serving specific interests of sections of society (Occupational groups) or demands which are held by specific sections of society. Contrasts with idea of territorial representation when a region or locality is represented by a party/other association.
  4. Help to educate & inform pubic about politically important issues, they also try educate/inform governing insitutions. E.g Friends of the Earth publicise environmental issues.
    1. Provide a less intensive but more relevant opportunity for political participation than political parties do. E.g Pressure groups (e.g Taxpayer' Alliance) organise online petitions, enabling people to make views known without major committment, thus they have become key part of modern particiipatory democracy.
  5. Help to make gov accountable & reponsive. Function they share with parl in UK. Pressure groups often point out shortcomings in gov policy & administration. Try to make gov more responsive to popular demands.
  6. Often scrutinise legislative & policy proposals, suggesting how they be improved/amended to make them fairer/ more effective. E.g Medical groups such as British Medical Association (BMA) & Royal College of Nursing (RCN) have helped shape NHS reform.
  7. 'Tension release'. Times when significant sections of society feel strongly about particular issue. If we remain a peaceful society its vital theres an outlet for such feeligs that doesnt result in violence. People need oppurtunity to give full expression to their feelings, their outrange. E.g 'Occupy' Movement gave opportunity for protest against 'excesses' of financial world.
  8. Functional representation definion: function of associations, usually pressure groups, which represent specific sections of society based on occupation, age, gender, income etc.
Distinctions between pressure groups & parties
1. Parties seek to achieve power either as governing party or as part of gov coalition. Pressure groups dont seek gov power, if they do they must turn into a party. Members must address full range of political issues in a party, if it were to become part of gov it would have to address all gov responsibiities.
  1. Parties must accept responsibility for all policies they propose. Govs must be accountable for what they do. Pressure groups don't have this problem, they'll never be in power so don't have to account for their actions/beliefs. This affects their attitudes fundamentally e.g environmental action group Greenpeace has waged long campaign against trials of genetically modified (GM) food crops, they believe developments are dangerous & environmentally unsound. Great potentially benefits in GM foods, including long-term solution to poverty in developing countries. Greenpeace can safely oppose GM crops without being accountable for that opposition might condemn millions from starvation. Govs cant abdicate such responsibility, they have to weigh up benefits/problems. Action on Smoking and Health (ASH) successfully campaigned for smoking ban in public places, it didn't have to be responsible for loss in government revenue due to smoking reduction.
2. Parties adopt policies across full range of gov responsibilities, from transport to foreign policy, from education to environment. Pressure groups have narrower concerns, single issue campaigns.
3. Pressure groups offer candidates for election to parl, to Scottish Parl & other devolved assemblies/local councils. Do this to create publicity. 2010 election single issue parties e.g Animals Count & Senior Citizens Party offered electorate a few alternative candidates. Doesnt make them into political parties since theyre not seeking power just representation & publicity.
4. Parties behave in responsible waysince theyre accountable & expect to seek election. Pressure groups dont accept all restrictions of potential gov, they break law/ undertae act of civil disobedience.
Blurring distinctions between pressure groups & parties
1. Pressure groups put candidates up for election despite theyre not seeking power. Anti abortion groups presented candidates in general elections to publicise cause. CLEAR, party campaigning for legalisation of cannabis presented candidates in 2010 to raise profile on issue.
2. Single issue parties look like pressure groups. UK Independence Party (UKIP) began as anti- European Union pressure grup, while Green Party was an environmenatal campaign organisation. British National Party is essentially anti immigration organisation.
3. Pressure groups, e.g trade unions can adopt wide range of policies so appear similar to parties.
4. Few pressure groups closel associated with parties so its difficult to distinguish between them. Unlock Democracy (campaigns for constitutional reform) closel alied with Liberal Democrats. Trade Unions have close links with Labour Party.
5. Both attempt to influence policy making process.
6. Both representative bodies, claiming to be communicators between sections of community & those who govern us.
7. Both try mould & mobilise public opinion to promote issues that concern them.
Classification of pressure groups
1. Sectional/interest groups: represent specific section of society. Self interested so concerned only promoting best interests of members. Best example=trade unions. Many groups that represent other economic sections e.g Institute of Directors (employers in general), Taxpayers Alliance, Age UK, National Farmers Union or Engineering Employers Federation. Medical groups also, represtn members who are suffering from specific diseases/conditions e.g Multiple Sclerosis Society & Heart Foundation.Sectional groups that represent various sports organisations, pensioners, children, students, industries,. Where theres an identifiable social section/ organisation, therell be represented by a pressure group.
2. Cause/issue/promotional group: dont have specific section of community to represent. Claim to serve interests of whole community. One issue or cluster of issues that they seek to promote. Dont have specific membership or have a small group of activists. Are altruistic in that they consider that they serve us all, not own members. Examples=environmental groups e.g Greenpeace & Friends of the Earth. Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) & National trust concerned with environment issues & quality of life. Changes in political system=Electoral Reform Society & Liverty. These groups temporary in nature as an issue with which theyre concerned may be short lived: Anti Poll Tax Federation 1989-90, campaigning against unpopular local poll tax, succeeded in pursuading gov to relent & abolish tax, group then creased to exist- Fathers for Justice might experience same fate.
3. Dual function groups: both sectional & caused based. Countryside Alligance represents people who live in rural areas but campaigns for better quality life in countryside (beneficial). Campaign for Better Transport beleives better public transport is an issue that affects all & represents existing users -both cause & sectional in nature. Groups that preform specific service/set of services for members & campaigns within political sysytem on their behalf. Trade unions - AA or RAC. Cancer research & National Security for prevention of Cruelty to Children NSPCC) are pressure groups. Seek funds/ legislation from gov to help those whom they serve, & offer wide range of other care services & put much effort into raising finace from general public.
4. Local pressure groups operating within communities. Often environmental in nature (concerned with local areas of beauty, parks, industy/agriculture problems etc) . Local action groups concerned with temporary issues (buildings of bypasses, closure of hospitals, planning issues etc) . When major change proposed for locality=group that opposes/amend/support of initiative will arise. Where majority of poltical activity takes place. Times when local demands are in conflict with national demands e.g renewable energy.
5. Insider group: Pressure groups that operate inside political system through contacts with ministers, MPs, peers, officials committees - take part in decision-making process. Regularly consulted by gov.
  1. Considered to be insiders by:
    1. 1)Groups that move from being insider to outsider & back depending on which gov is in power. E.g conservative gov wouldnt normally consult regularly with Liberty (human rights pressure group) but Lib Dems viewed them as insiders in the coalition. Trade unions tend to be closer with Labour not conservatives. 2)Consulted regularly by gov bodies as they provide useful info & able to express veiws of members. If policies are to secure support, its important for gov to know attitides of those affected. Confereation of British Industry (CBI) regularly produces reports on how buisnesses operate & attitudes towards issues like business taxation, employment regulations, trade etc & informs gov how business is performing with regard to issues like investment, sales expectations, costs etc.
    2. 3) Some have permanent seats on gov policy committees & agenecies, find themseves at centre of decison making process. National Farmers Union (NFU) is advantageous to gov that all agricultural policy should be considered by representatives of farming community at early stage as theyll conform to these policies.
    3. Groups set up by gov itself & funded from taxpayers money. Almost part of gov nt just insiders. Commission for Equality & Human Rights (CEHR) set up to specifically to advise gov on matters of rights,racial discrimmination, equality of opportunity. Office of Fair Trading= ultra insider group.
    4. Select committiees in HofC investigate work of gov departments & produce reports of policy proposals. Have power to call witnesses in course of their proceedings. Insider pressure groups often called to their meetings so have direct input into process of making gov fully accountable.
    5. Some groups need to achieve insider status at local/regional/european levels. European- trade unions & business employers organisations able to attach themseves to sections of European Commission which develops policy for EU & operates extensively with European parl which has increasing impact on policy. Representation weak in EU as members of its parl (MEPs) have huge constituencies & modest influence as individuals/political groupings. By 2012 15,000+ indidual & groups were regisitered with european commission, status gives them offical access to commissioners who develop new politicy Pressure groups (some joined europe wide orgamisations) have special role to play in flow of info & influence. 2,600 organisations with permanent offices in Brussels.
      1. Similar phenomenonon in govs of Scotland, Northern Ireland & Wales which have institutions akin to those at central level. Local gov has insider group that operate with council committees & work with permanent council officils who run local services.
  2. Insider status appears to be advantage but theres a price to be paid. Insiders must ct in responsible way by implication. Gov institutions cant be seen closely associated with groups prepared to act outsside of parliamentry system & engage in illegal activities. Insiders constrained to kind of methods they use & may loose independence if they work too closely with gov so find position compromised. Tthey would begin to adopt same policies as political contacts if it occurs memebrship may feel theyre ceasing to be genuinely representative. Environment groups& trade unions must have their gaurd up. this is why some groups remain outsiders.
6. Outsider groups: Unlike insider groups, outisders have no special links with with gov but seek to influence decision makers by mobilising public opinion.
  1. Prefers to remain outside gov process to preserve independence & freedom of action. E.g Greenpeace - as organisatio it undertakes acts of civil disobedience e.g disrobing GM crop/ disrupting international conferendce. If it enjoyed insider status wouldnt be able to do this. Feels it can make bettter impact by remaining outsider.
    1. Simply not been invited into governing process (aspiriing insiders). Association of British Drivers would like to be insider but its a young organisation & been faced with unsypathetic from Labour gov. Important factor in outsider status is conflict between aims of gov & aims of group e.g trade unions enjoyed special status within Labour party since 1900 found themselves total outisders after Margaret Thatcher came to power 1979. She opposed trade union power in general so no intention of consulting with them regulary. After Labour took power in 1997 unions were unable to join insider status fully. Attracted support of business=Labour under Tony Blair decided to retain business pressure groups leaving unions still outside.
7. New social movements/ NSMs:1980s saw rise in political action group that didnt fit in any existing pressure group classifications.
  1. Broadly based fairly informal movements that emerge rapidly around particular issue. Characterised by organisation of mass demonstartions & media campaigns designed to create max publicity & put political pressure upon desicion makers. Become possible due to development of telecommunications e.g interent & mobile phone texting. Allows opinion to spead fast.
  2. first modern e.g (mass movements in general sense are nothing new) of NSM= Anti Poll Tax Federation late 1980s, arose from widespead discontent about replacement of domestic property rates with flat rate tax per head (poll tax) to finance local gov services. Movement organised demonstartions leading to violence & dmaged properrty & 'tax strike'. Tax strike involved 100s of 1,000s of people who simply refuse dto pay the tax, highly successful & poll tax abolished 1991.
  3. In 2000 rises in fuel prices led to formation of Peoples Fuel Lobby, alliance of farmers, motorists, road hauliers & other interested parties. Group blockaded fuel depots & blocked main roads to publicse issue. Gov criticised its tactics but did lead to callcellation that year of tax increase on petrol. Same year Countryside Alliance develeoping campaigning on variety of rural issues inc proposed ban on hunting with dogs. Alliance formed into permanent pressure group & now seeks insider status. Anti Iraq war Coalition 2002-4 & Occupy Movement became worldwide since 2011.
  4. Further phenomenon arose 2007 when Downing Street began to accept unternet petitions on variety of issues. Association of British Drivers (small organistion at time) mustered 1.8 million signatures, protesting against road pricing scheme. Was technology that enabled modest organisation to mount a rapid & effective campaign. Larger motorist organisation (AA & RAC) could rival impact of BDA despite immense resources.
  5. Movements normally locally based, campaigns to save hospitals from closure/ prevent new roads being built, green belt land being developed/ footpaths blocked use similar methods to those employed by national groups.
  6. Global movements e.g environmental protection, human/animal rights/ world poverty/ fair trade concentrate efforts on international conferences e.g EU ministerial councils, G8 summits or World Trade Organisation meetings. Methods are the same aswell as aims.
Pluralist democracy
1. Pluralism: political system where wide range of beliefs/ideologies/ideas is tolerated & allowed to flourish. Implies system where power is widely dispersed & not concentrated in few hands. - UK is pluralism in nature
2. As long as group doesnt break law, threaten security of state or incite others to commit crime or adopt racist ideas its tolerated & protected from discrimmination. Thus pressure groups are able to operate in extremely free & tolerant environment, theyre a key element in a pluralist society.
3. UK enjoys free & active civil society. This refers to many types of groups that flourish & to which people owe some kind f allegiance/sense of attachment. Inc larger sections of community e.g religions, political parties, media, arts, sports organisations, associations, school , unis etc. Pressure grups take up key part of civil society.
4. Until late 1970s poltics in UK was based upon social class & two party system. Political issues=party conflict & class conflict. Political conflict was reflection of class conflict since conservatives were middle class based & Lobour was working class. Political attitudes of electorate revolved around this. In late 1970s two process took shape:
  1. Class divisions in UK breaking down, working class becoming affluent adopting 'middle class' lifestyles & attitudes. Middle class dividing into sub groups ( worked in private sector/those who worked in public sector). Increasing differences between those who were 'professional' (doctors, teachers, lawyers etc) & those emplyed in managerial positions. Growing distinction between those emplyed & unemployed, groups didnt idenfity with one big common class began to conern themeselves with narrow intersts of own smaller section of society. 'Group politics' evolved.
  2. process called 'partisan dealignment' took place. where people identified les closely with aims of conservative & labour parties. Group politics took hold. Parties unable to represent satisfactoy smaller sections of soceity that were making political demands because they seeked to develop policies that attracked broad not specialised support. Growth in number, membership & influence of pressure groups filled gap.
5. Pluralist democracy: democratic system where demands & interests of many different groups in society recognised & taken into consideration in policy making.
Pressure groups & democracy
1. Democracy features: Society where knowledge flows freely & people have wide access to sources of info independent of gov -well informed citizentry. People feel effectively represented in gov circles & insitutions politically & socially representative. Gov fully accountable to the people & to peoples representatives. Free & extensive opportunities for people to participate actively in political processes & participation can range from deep/intesive to shallow/sporadic depending of citizens prefences. Rights & interests of individuals & groups taken into account in decision making processes. Full range of consitutional democratic principles in place notably free & fair elections & rule of law inc equal rights, independent judiciary & defences against arbitary gov.
2. Democratic features of pressure groups: Education - offer info to people & indepedent of gov if not independent then they arent pressure groups, cant rely on info being totally accurate but when combined can form reasonable judgement e.g Action on Smoking and Health ASH informs public on dangers of smoking. Representation- whether we take part or not pressure groups represent our internets to those who govern. Probably a group that seeks to secure favourable legislation/decisions to avoid ufavourable one. Even smallest minorities likely to represented. important representative functions to preform. Automobile Association (AA) represents interests of motorists.
  1. Participation- passive citizentry is seen as danager to democracy. If we dont take part in political activity theres danger that gov become too dictaorial safe in knowledge that power is unlikey to be challenged. Political activisms important to prevent excessive accumalitions of power & ensure gov remains accountable to people. Declining levels of involvement in political parties, pressure groups have provided opportunity for political participation. 38 Degrees makes simple for people to participate in any campaigns, local/national. Minority Interests- Ensures small/large groups taken into account protected & awarded equal status. If this doesnt occur danger that democracy becomes rule of majority. 19th centry philosopher Robert Stuart Mill 'tyranny of majority'. Political parties seek majority support so ignore minorities. Pressure groups need to xist so party rule doesnt turn into tyranny. Health groups e.g Multiple Sclerois Society protect interests of those with disease.
    1. Dispersal of power (plurism)- conventional view of pressure groups= help spread power more widely. Gov & parties tend to concentrate power in hands of leadership, pressure groups empower wider memberships. Representent full range of population & allow voices to be heard. As long as they have influence give politically active part of population access to decision makers either directly/indirectly. Mass membership groups ( Age UK or Unions representing public service members).
Methods of pressure groups
Why some groups are more successful than others
Changing nature & activities of pressure groups

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Pressure Groups

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