Chapter 6: Learning

Anmerkungen:

• Learning is any relatively durable change in behavior, attitude, of knowledge that is due to experience.  Not to be confused with a reflex which is without control and peripheral. 

1. Classical Conditioning

   Anmerkungen:

   • Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus; this is achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the potent stimulus
   1. 4 Key steps
      1. UCS

         Anmerkungen:

         • The Unconditioned Stimulus: consistently produces a particular automatic response usually controlled by the nervous system.  In Pavlov's = Dog food
      2. UCR

         Anmerkungen:

         • The Unconditioned Response: Response that occurs when the UCS is presented.  A reflex.  In Pavlov's Dog: Salivation Always identical to CR
      3. CS

         Anmerkungen:

         • Stimulus is neutral at start of conditioning process. Through association with UCS, the CS triggers the (U)CR.  In Pavlov's Dog: sound of bell.   
      4. CR

         Anmerkungen:

         • Learned response produced by CS. Occurs after association. Similair to UCR but triggered by CR alone.  In Pavlov's Dog: Salivation at bell. 
   2. Pavlov

      Anmerkungen:

      • Ivan Pavlov was a physiologist who paved the way for behavioral psychology. In his initial experiments, Pavlov presented a stimulus and then gave the dog food; after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the stimulus. Pavlov called the stimulus the conditioned (or conditional) stimulus (CS) because its effects depend on its association with food. 
   3. Involuntary
   4. Little Albert

      Anmerkungen:

      • The Little Albert experiment was a case study showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning in humans. The study also provides an example of stimulus generalization.
   5. Processes
      1. Stimuli - Response

         Anmerkungen:

         • A stimuli is something that causes a reaction. A Response is the reaction to said stimuli  In classical conditioning responses are elicited.  
      2. Classical Acquisition

         Anmerkungen:

         • Occurs when CS and UCS are paired gradually resulting in CR. 
      3. Classical Extinction

         Anmerkungen:

         • Occurs when CS is repeatedly presented alone until it no longer elicits a CR. 
      4. Spontaneous Recovery

         Anmerkungen:

         • the re-appearance of an extinguished response after a period of non exposure to the CS. 
      5. Classical Generalization

         Anmerkungen:

         • Occurs when a CR is elicited by a new stimulus that resembles the original CS. 
      6. Classical Discrimination

         Anmerkungen:

         • When a CR is not elicited by a new stimulus that resembles the original CS. 
2. Operant Conditioning

   Anmerkungen:

   • Operant conditioning is a learning process in which behavior is sensitive to, or controlled by its consequences 
   1. Voluntary
   2. Behavioral Programming
      1. Shape

         Anmerkungen:

         • Reinforcing behavior to make them closer to goal behavior. 
         1. Positive Reinforcement

            Anmerkungen:

            • Rewarding favorable behavior 
            1. Schedules
               1. Variable Ratio

                  Anmerkungen:

                  • When using a variable-ratio (VR) schedule of reinforcement the delivery of reinforcement will “vary” but must average out at a specific number. Just like a fixed-ratio schedule, a variable-ratio schedule can be any number but must be defined.
               2. Fixed Ratio

                  Anmerkungen:

                  • A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement means that reinforcement should be delivered after a constant or “fixed” number of correct responses. For example, a fixed ratio schedule of 2 means reinforcement is delivered after every 2 correct responses.
               3. Fixed Interval

                  Anmerkungen:

                  • A fixed-interval schedule means that reinforcement becomes available after a specific period of time. The schedule is abbreviated into “FI” followed by the amount of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes available, e.g. an FI2 would mean reinforcement becomes available after 2 minutes has passed; an FI20 means 20 minutes must pass and so on.
               4. Variable Interval

                  Anmerkungen:

                  • The variable-interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement means the time periods that must pass before reinforcement becomes available will “vary” but must average out at a specific time interval. Again the time interval can be any number but must be defined.
         2. Negative reinforcement

            Anmerkungen:

            • Relief: removing averse stimulus
      2. Diminish

         Anmerkungen:

         • To decrease unwanted behavior through penalty or punishment. 
         1. Punish

            Anmerkungen:

            • Active Punishment
         2. Penalty

            Anmerkungen:

            • Removal of privilege. 
   3. Processes
      1. Operant Acquisition

         Anmerkungen:

         • Occurs when a response gradually increases due to contingent reinforcement. 
      2. Operant Extinction

         Anmerkungen:

         • Occurs when responding gradually slows and stops after reinforcement is terminated.  
      3. Operant Generalization

         Anmerkungen:

         • Occurs when responding increases in the presence of a stimulus that resembles the original discrimination stimulus. 
      4. Operant Discrimination

         Anmerkungen:

         • Occurs when responding does not increase in the presence of a stimulus that resembles the original discriminative stimulus.  
3. Observational Learning

   Anmerkungen:

   • Behavior learned through observation, thought to be connected to mirror neurons. A mirror neuron is a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting. Such neurons have been directly observed in primate species.
   1. 3 key steps
      1. Retention

         Anmerkungen:

         • Remembering what you paid attention to: cooking lesson. 
      2. Attention

         Anmerkungen:

         • One's characteristics affect attention: capacity and arousal. 
      3. Reproduction

         Anmerkungen:

         • Being able to reproduce what is remembered: driving. 
   2. Motivation
      1. Intrinsic

         Anmerkungen:

         • An ambition to motivate self. 
      2. Extrinsic

         Anmerkungen:

         • Motivated by external rewards. 
   3. Dis-inhibition

      Anmerkungen:

      • Weakening of inhibition through exposure to a model: mob mentality. 
   4. Latent Learning

      Anmerkungen:

      • Latent learning is a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned.
   5. Modelling

      Anmerkungen:

      • A model for which others can observe behavior: BOBO Dolls 
4. Evolutionary Perspectives
   1. Instinctive Drift

      Anmerkungen:

      • When an animals inate response interferes with conditioning.  
   2. Taste Aversion

      Anmerkungen:

      • Biological and evolutionary response to consuming things that sicken us. 
   3. Phobias

      Anmerkungen:

      • Evolutionary to form fears of dangerous activities or animals.