The generalized cell

Anmerkungen:

• 15% protein 3% lipids (grease) 1% carbs 1% nucleic acids 80% water

1. Nucleus
   1. Nuclear membrane
      1. Nucleoplasm
         1. Nucleolus
            1. RNA: Ribonucleic acid

               Anmerkungen:

               • Ribonucleic acid ribo-, ribose, pentose sugarthe blueprint for proteins SINGLE STRANDED
               1. RNA
               2. RNA
               3. mRNA
                  1. RNAP transcribes DNA on mRNA (C-G, A-U)
                     1. RNA processing to edit introns and intervening sequences. leaving exons
                        1. triplet nucleotids called codons
               4. tRNA
                  1. cloverleaf shape; strings amino acids (3 reads as one code) (20 aa in human body)
                     1. tRNA links anticodons to codons, form - polypeptides
               5. rRNA + protein
                  1. Ribosome

                     Anmerkungen:

                     • amino acids are strung according to the RNA "blueprint" mRNA (messenger)
                     1. reads keys on mRNA
         2. Chromatin (DNA, related protein)

            Anmerkungen:

            • Thin streads of genetic material Chromatin transforms into Chromosomes during cell division
         3. DNA: Deoxy-ribonucleic acid (C-G, A-T)

            Anmerkungen:

            • Deoxyribonucleic acid de- oxy- ribose- -nucleic DOUBLE STRANDED
            1. purines:　2-carbon nitrogen ring bases (adenine and guanine) pyrimidines: 1-carbon nitrogen ring bases (thymine and cytosine)
   2. slicer enzymes etc.
2. Cytoplasm
   1. Mitochondrion

      Anmerkungen:

      • MITO- thread KHONDRION granule the power plant breakdown of carbohydrates and fatty acids
      1. Krebs cycle (TCA cycle/Citric acid cycle) @ Matrix

         Anmerkungen:

         • tricarboxylic acid cycle
         1. GTP

            Anmerkungen:

            • Guanosine triphosphate can be easily converted to ATP by Nucleoside Diphosphokinase (-ase enzyme)
            1. protein synthesis
            2. energy transfer
         2. 2. produce NADH, FADH2, coenzymes that shuttle protons and electrons
            1. Electron transport chain, (1000s per mitochondrion) Proton gradient across cristae membrane by pumping H+
               1. 3.ATP synthase: energy converts ADP to ATP (oxidative phosphorylation) through chemiosis as Oxygen (final Electron and proton acceptor) pulls electrons through ETC
                  1. water as waste product (breath)
                  2. total 36 ATP
      2. free radicals

         Anmerkungen:

         • left over free radicals that could danger the workings processes of the cell
   2. Golgi

      Anmerkungen:

      • Camillo Golgi "packages" secretory products.through the cis face, and out from the trans face.enzymes of Lysosomes are released by the Golgi, and when bound together with endosomes, Lysosomes are formed.
      1. Lysosome "lyso-" loosening

         Anmerkungen:

         • vesicle based will also digest foreign viruses and bacteria
         1. none in plants
         2. sac of hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes
            1. Lysomic recycling

               Anmerkungen:

               • seals organelle with membrane, fuses with this vesicle, and break down organelle into simpler molecules. 
            2. Intracellular digestion
      2. defensins

         Anmerkungen:

         • defensins are matured in the Golgi
         1. defensins

            Anmerkungen:

            • defensins act like shields to deflect alien material from entering the cell
   3. Microfilament

      Anmerkungen:

      • support structures formed from protein (different from Microtubule)
      1. Skeletal muscle

         Anmerkungen:

         • The thickness of the filaments determine the light and dark areas. M line: Mitter (middle) German H zone: Helle (bright) German I band: Isotropic A band: anisotropic Z disk: dense protein disks (let almost no light through)
         1. actin
         2. myosin

            Anmerkungen:

            • turns ATP into mechanical energy. shaped like pin heads
         3. titin
   4. Centrosomes
      1. two centrioles

         Anmerkungen:

         • Migrate chromatids (either end of a splitted chromosome) during cell division
   5. Vacuoles

      Anmerkungen:

      • taxis
      1. vacuoles

         Anmerkungen:

         • vacuoles merge with (cell) membrane. transport.
         1. Freshwater Protista ex: paramecium, amoeba have contractile vacuole to pump excess water
   6. Peroxisome

      Anmerkungen:

      • vesicle based: absorbs free radicals
   7. etc.

      Anmerkungen:

      • cell inclusion: glycogen, fat, and so on.
   8. Microtubule

      Anmerkungen:

      • act as conveyor belts / plays cryoskeletal role
   9. ER: endoplasmic (endo- inside) reticulum (net)

      Anmerkungen:

      • endoplasmic reticulum makes membrane. all vesicle based 
      1. rough

         Anmerkungen:

         • protein manufacturing ribosomes give the rough surface ribosomes read the RNA (blueprint) and then pumps the RNA inside.
      2. smooth

         Anmerkungen:

         • smooth ERs synthesizes steroids in some cells stores calcium in muscle breas down toxins in liver
   10. Plastids (only in plants + Algae)
       1. 1. Chloroplasts
          1. Photosynthesis is a oxidation-reduction process: the water is oxidized (loses electrons H+) and the CO2 is reduced (gains electrons)
          2. stroma: light independent
             1. calvin cycle: sugar (PGAL) thorugh carbon fixation (CO2, H+, electrons)
                1. rubisco important enzyme: converts CO2
          3. grana: light dependent
             1. photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a and b
                1. photolysis: produce ATP and protons (through ATP synthase channels carried by NADP ) for light independent.
                   1. Oxygen as waste product
          4. C-4 photosynthesis, modified for dry environment
             1. corn, sugar cane, crabgrass
       2. 2. Leucoplasts (Colorless, store starch, tubers or roots
       3. .3. Chromoplasts
          1. Carotenoid pigments: red, orange yellow
   11. cytosol (cytoplasm - stuff inside)(spins - cyclosis
   12. 1. Glycolysis, convert glucose to peruvic acid
       1. peruvic acid+corenzyme A
          1. Acetyl-CoA
3. cell membrane
   1. cholesterol embedded to make less fluid
   2. 60% protein (ex ATP synthetase
   3. passive transport: diffusion, osmosis
      1. active: Pinocytosis "cell drinking" large, dissolved molecules
         1. Phagocytosis
         2. Exocytosis, active release of molecules
         3. receptor-mediated endocytosis, ex cholesterol from blood
      2. faciliated: transmembrane
4. microvilli

   Anmerkungen:

   • Increase surface area of cell, enhance secretion / absorption
5. Necrosis

   Anmerkungen:

   • traumatic death of cell cannot recycle self, and remains contain harmful substances
6. Apoptosis

   Anmerkungen:

   • "cell suicide" break down self in a safe and organized fashion. other cells can recycle and use its parts
7. History
   1. Anton van Leeuwenhoek: 1st microscope
   2. Robert Hooke 1665 cork tissue "cell"
   3. Matthias Schleiden 1838 living tissue. plant cells
   4. Theodor Schwann 1839 all animals made of cells
   5. Rudolf Virchow 1855 cell reproduction
   6. NOW
      1. 1. Phase-contrast microscope
         1. living, unstained
      2. 2. Electron microscope - up to 100,000x
         1. TEM, Transmission electron microscope INTERIOR
         2. SEM, Scanning electron microscope, SURFACE
         3. drawbacks: not alive after processing, elaborate prep, delicate, costly machine, thin specimen
      3. Ultricentrifuge, isolate specific components
      4. Freeze fracture/etching, membrane details
      5. tissue culture
8. 10-100 micrometers
9. Sorting
   1. Prokaryotes
      1. no nucleus/internal membrane
         1. bacteria, some with pili. 1-10 micrometers
            1. plasmids
   2. Eukaryotes
      1. Nucleus, complex. Humans have 200- cell types
   3. Theory of Endosymbiosis
10. Cell wall
    1. fungi - chitin
    2. Plants and Algae - cellulose