Chapter Five: Variations in Consciousness

1. STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS

   Anmerkungen:

   • -William James (1902) named it -consciousness is in constant flux -continually changing stream of mental activity

1. MIND WANDERING

   Anmerkungen:

   • -refers to people's experience of task-unrelated thoughts. -thoughts that are not related to what they are intentionally trying to do at a given moment.
2. CONTROLLED PROCESSES

   Anmerkungen:

   • -judgements or thoughts that we exert some control over
3. AUTOMATIC PROCESSES

   Anmerkungen:

   • -automatic processing and it's effects happen without our intentional control or effort.

1. Conscious thought is constrained by capacity limitations. Advantage of unconscious thought it does not have the same capacity constraints.

1. Most commonly used indicator of variations in consciousness has been the EEG-ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH

   Anmerkungen:

   • -EEG is a device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp. -records activity from broad swaths of the cortex -
   1. EEG summarizes the rhythm of cortical activity in the brain in terms of line tracings called BRAIN WAVES.

      Anmerkungen:

      • changes in EEG activity are closely related to variations in consciousness
      1. Brain wave tracings vary in amplitude (height) and frequency (cycles per second cps)
         1. Brain-wave activity divided into 4 principal bands
            1. BETA (13-24 cps)
               1. Normal waking thought, alert problem solving
            2. ALPHA (8-12 cps)
               1. Deep relaxation, blank mind, meditation
            3. THETA (4-7 cps)
               1. Light sleep
            4. DELTA (under 4 cps)
               1. Deep sleep

1. BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS are periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning
   1. CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS are the 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species. Particularly influential in the regulation of sleep.
      1. Circadian rhythms can leave individuals physiologically primed to fall asleep most easily at a particular time of day.
         1. Circadian rhythms generally persist even when external time cues are eliminated.
            1. SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS (SCN) sends signals to the pineal gland, whose secretion of the hormone melatonin plays a key role in adjusting biological clocks.

               Anmerkungen:

               • When exposed to light, some receptors in the retina send direct inputs to a small structure in the hypothalamus called suprachiamatic nucleus(SCN)

Anmerkungen:

• If you get less than the amount of sleep that you need, you accumulate sleep debit.

Anmerkungen:

• flying across several time zones, your body keeps time as usual, even though the official clock time changes.

Anmerkungen:

• affects worker's mental and physical health

Anmerkungen:

• monitors electrical activity of the brain

Anmerkungen:

• records muscular activity and tension

Anmerkungen:

• records eye movements

1. Brief, transitional (1-7 min)
   1. Alpha waves give way to lower frequency Theta waves
      1. Hypnic Jerks

         Anmerkungen:

         • those brief muscular contractions that occur as people fall asleep

1. Lasts 10-25 min
   1. Brief bursts of higher-frequency brain waves, called SLEEP SPINDLES appear

1. 30 min
   1. Slow-Wave Sleep (SWS)

      Anmerkungen:

      • -during which high amplitude, low frequency delta waves become prominent in EEG recordings
      1. Delta waves

Anmerkungen:

• REM sleep is a relatively deep stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements;high frequency, low-amplitude brain waves; and vivid dreaming

1. REM -rapid eye movements
   1. use electooculograph to monitor lateral (side to side) movements that occur beneath the sleeping person's closed eyelids
      1. Deep stage of sleep, people are relatively hard to awaken from it.
         1. marked by irregular breathing and pulse rate.
            1. body movements are minimal
               1. EEG activity is dominated by high-frequency Beta waves that resemble those observed when people are alert and awake
                  1. Rem dreams may be more frequent, vivid and memorable
                     1. First REM period is short lasting only a few minutes. Each cycle they get longer peaking at 40-60 min

Anmerkungen:

• Non-REM sleep consists of sleep stages 1through, which are marked by an absence of rapid eye movements, relatively little dreaming, and varied EEG activity.

1. NREM intervals tend to get shorter, and descents into NREM stages usually become more shallow each time people cycle through

1. Babies
   1. Spend much more time in the REM stage than adults
      1. Newborns only have REM and NREM sleep types
2. Adults
   1. average amount of total sleep time also declines with advancing age.
      1. Older adults tolerate sleep deprivation with less impairment than younger adults

Anmerkungen:

• Occurs when people make do with substantially less sleep than normal over a period of time.

1. More negative effects than we assume
   1. can impair attention, reaction time, cognitive speed and accuracy, motor coordination and decision making.
      1. Sleep loss can affect physiological processes in ways that may undermine physical health.

1. Effects of REM deprivation
   1. little impact on daytime functioning and task performance
      1. It is necessary to awaken subjects more and more often to deprive them of REM sleep because they spontaneously shift into REM more and more frequently as the nights go by
         1. When REM deprivation comes to an end and subjects are allowed to sleep without interruption, they experience a rebound effect. They spend extra time in REM to make up for the deprivation.
            1. Why do we need REM? for memory consolidation

               Anmerkungen:

               • -REM and slow-wave sleep contribute to firming up learning that takes place during the day. REM sleep and slow-wave sleep each promote different types of memory.
               1. The length of time spent in REM and SWS correlates with subject's increments in learning
                  1. Sound sleep habits should facilitate learning.
                     1. REM sleep appears to foster the process of NEUROGENESIS

                        Anmerkungen:

                        • -Neurogenesis refers to the formation of new neurons. -neurogenesis contributes to learning

1. ASCENDING RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (ARAS)

   Anmerkungen:

   • consists of the fibres running through the reticular formation that influence physiological arousal.
   1. Activity in the PONS and adjacent areas in the midbrain seems to be critical to the generation of REM sleep
      1. The ebb & flow of sleep and waking is regulated through activity in a constellation of interacting brain centres.
         1. Evolutionary significance of sleep hypothesis
            1. 1. Sleep evolved to conserve energy
            2. 2.The inactivity of sleep is adaptive because it reduces exposure to predators and the consumption of precious resources
            3. 3. Sleep is adaptive because it helps animals restore bodily resources depleted by waking activities

1. Insomnia

   Anmerkungen:

   • -refers to chronic problems in getting adequate sleep.
   1. Insomnia increases with age and is about 50% more common in women than men.
      1. most common sleep disorder, occurs in 3 basic patterns
         1. 1.)difficulty in falling asleep initially
            1. 2.) difficulty in remaining asleep
               1. 3.)persistent early morning awakening
   2. Has many causes
      1. Is frequently a side effect of emotional problems such as depression, or of significant stress
         1. recent research has suggested that the primary cause of insomnia may be that some people are predisposed to insomnia because they have a higher level of physiological arousal than the average person. this is the HYPERAROUSAL MODEL
            1. Treatment
               1. most common medical treatment is the prescription of 2 classes of drugs
                  1. BENZODIAZEPINE SEDATIVES (Dalmane, Halcion, and Restoril)
                     1. originally developed to relieve anxiety
                  2. NONBENZODIAZEPINE SEDATIVES (Ambien, Sonata, Lunesta)
                     1. newer and designed primarily for sleep problems
               2. Sedatives can be a poor long term solution because of carry over effects and can cause overdose in combination with alcohol or opiate drugs
                  1. Sedatives gradually become less effective and need to be used cautiously and conservatively.
                     1. Relaxation procedures and behavioural interventions can be helpful for many.
2. Narcolepsy

   Anmerkungen:

   •  is a disease marked by sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods
   1. is relatively infrequent (0.05% of population)
      1. appears to be genetically predisposed to disease
         1. goes directly from wakefulness into REM sleep usually for a short period of time(10-20 min)
3. Sleep Apnea

   Anmerkungen:

   • -involves frequent, reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and disrupts sleep
   1. Occurs when a person stops breathing for 10 seconds and at least 5 such events per hour of sleep
      1. may be treated via lifestyle modifications
         1. generally, sleep disordered breathing that goes untreated may interfere with memory consolidation associated with sleep
4. Nightmares

   Anmerkungen:

   • -are anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep
   1. occur during REM sleep
      1. Mainly a problem among children
5. Night or Sleep Terrors

   Anmerkungen:

   • -are abrupt awakenings from NREM sleep, accompanied by intense autonomic arousal and feelings of panic
   1. usually occurs during stage 4 sleep early in the night
      1. don't usually recall a coherent dream, may remember a simple frightening image
         1. occur in adults but especially common in children age 3-8
6. Somnambulism or Sleep walking

   Anmerkungen:

   • - occurs when a person arises and wanders about while remaining asleep
   1. tends to occur in the first 2 hours of sleep
      1. causes of this disorder are unknown and appears to have a genetic predisposition
         1. contrary to popular myth, it is safe to wake people
7. REM Sleep Behaviour Disorder(RBD)

   Anmerkungen:

   • -is marked by potentially troublesome dream enactments during REM sleep
   1. occurs mostly in men who typically begin experiencing this in their 50-60's
      1. they may talk, yell, flail,gesture
         1. could hurt themselves or bed partner
            1. cause appears to be some sort of deterioration in the brainstem structure
               1. treatment is difficult and co-exist with other sleep disorders

1. non-REM dreams appear to be less vivid, visual and story like than REM dreams

1. One nearly universal element of dreams is a coherent sense of self- we almost always experience dreams from a first person perspective.

   Anmerkungen:

   • typically dreams are self centred.
   1. contents of dreams vary because people in different societies deal with different worlds while awake

Anmerkungen:

• - Coined by Freud -contents of waking life often tended to spill into dreams.

Anmerkungen:

• - are dreams in which people can think clearly about the circumstances of waking life and the fact that they are dreaming, yet they remain asleep in the midst of a vivid dream. -in some cases dreamer may be able to exert some control over the dream

1. Manifest Content

   Anmerkungen:

   • consists of the plot of a dream at the surface level
2. Latent Content

   Anmerkungen:

   • refers to the hidden or disguised meaning of the events in the plot

1. Cognitive problem solving view

   Anmerkungen:

   • there is considerable continuity between waking and sleeping thought.

1. Activation-synthesis model

   Anmerkungen:

   • -propose that dreams are side effects of the neural activation that produces"wide-awake" brain waves during REM sleep -Does NOT assume dreams are meaningless.

1. Hypnosis is a systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility
   1. Hypnotic Induction

      Anmerkungen:

      • -many techniques can be used. Swinging pendulum, suggestion of relaxation etc.
      1. Gradually most subjects succumb and become hypnotized
         1. Hypnotic Suceptibility

            Anmerkungen:

            • -Responsiveness to hypnosis is a stable, measurable trait. -people who are responsive to suggestion under hypnosis are just as responsive to suggestion without being hypnotized
            1. is NOT unique to hypnosis and is part of a broader trait characterized as IMAGINATIVE SUGGESTIBILITY

1. Anesthesia

   Anmerkungen:

   • Under the influence of  hypnosis some participants can withstand treatments that would normally cause considerable pain. some doctors and dentists have used hypnosis as a substitute for anesthetic drugs
2. Sensory Distortions & Hallucinations

   Anmerkungen:

   • hypnotized participants may be led to experience auditory or visual halluncinations
3. Disinhibition

   Anmerkungen:

   • -hypnosis can sometimes reduce inhibitions that would normally prevent subjects from acting in ways that they would see as socially undesirable.

1. Social-Cognitive Theory of Hypnosis:Hypnosis as Role Playing
   1. The view that hypnosis produces a normal mental state in which suggestible people act out the role of a hypnotized subject and behave as they think hypnotized people are suppose to act.
      1. Hypnosis is not the result of a person being in a "trance" but rather results from normal everyday processes including an individual's expectations and attitudes
         1. hypnosis may facilitate recall, some studies have tended to find hypnotized participants make more memory errors than nonhypnotized participants, even though they often feel more confident about their recollections.
2. Hypnosis as an Altered State of Consciousness
   1. hypnosis creates a dissociation in consciousness
      1. DISSOCIATION is a splitting off of mental processes into 2 seperate simultaneous streams of awareness
         1. One stream is in communication with the hypnotist and the external world, while the other is a difficult to detect "hidden observer"
            1. Appealing aspect of this theory is that divided consciousness is a common, normal experience. ie highway hypnosis

1. two main styles of of meditation
   1. Focused Attention
      1. attention is concentrated on a specific object, image, sound or bodily sensation such as breathing
         1. The intent in narrowing attention is to clear the mind of its clutter
   2. Open Monitoring
      1. attention is directed to the contents of one'smoment-to-moment experience in a nonjudgmental and nonreactive way
         1. The intent in expanding attention is to become a detached observer of the flow of one's own sensations, thoughts and feelings
   3. Both seek to achieve a"higher" form of consciousness than people normally experience

1. Research suggests that meditation can improve mental health while reducing anxiety and drug abuse
   1. recent studies suggest meditation may have the potential to modify brain structure
      1. Critics wonder about placebo effects, sampling bias and other methodological problems may contribute to some of the reported benefits

1. Narcotics/Opiates

   Anmerkungen:

   • are drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain common side effects lethargy nausea impaired mental and motor functioning
   1. Sedatives

      Anmerkungen:

      • are sleep inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system activation and behavioural activity  side effects drowsiness, unpredictable emotional  swings, severe impairments in motor coordination and mental functioning
      1. Stimulants

         Anmerkungen:

         • -are drugs that tend to increase central nervous system(CNS) activation and behavioural activity -side effects restlessness,anxiety, paranoia and insomnia
         1. Hallucinogens

            Anmerkungen:

            • - are a diverse group of drugs that have a powerful effect on mental and emotional functioning, marked most prominently by distortions in sensory and perceptual experiences -
            1. Cannabis

               Anmerkungen:

               • - is the hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish and THC are derived  -side effects may include anxiety, sluggish mental functioning and impaired memory. -recent studies have reported an unexpected link between cannabis use and severe psychotic disorders, including schizophrenia -
               1. Alcohol

                  Anmerkungen:

                  • -encompasses a variety of beverages containing ethyl alcohol -side effects include severe impairment in mental and motor functioning, mood swings, and quarrelsomeness
                  1. MDMA 'Ecstasy"

                     Anmerkungen:

                     • is a compound drug related to both amphetamines and hallucinogens, especially mescaline -side effects include increased blood pressure, muscle tension, sweating, blurred vision, insomnia, and transient anxiety -research is in its infancy, so conclusions about its risks are still ongoing - does not appear to be especially addictive, but pychological dependence clearly can become a problem for some - may have subtle long term effects on cognitive functioning - concerns that recently ecstasy pills that are laced with crystal meth
                     1. Drug effects vary from person to person, frequency of use, and quantity consumed. Multifactorial causation applies to drug effects
                        1. Tolerance refers to a progressive decrease in a person's responsiveness to a drug.
                           1. Psychoactive drugs work primarily by altering neurotransmitter activity in the brain at the synapses.

1. Physical dependance

   Anmerkungen:

   • -exists when a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal illness -
   1. conditioning is implicated in dependency in many ways
2. Psychological dependance

   Anmerkungen:

   • -exists when a person must continue to take a drug to satisfy intense mental and emotional craving for the drug.
   1. is possible with all recreational drugs, it seems rare for hallucinogens
3. both types of dependancy are established gradually with repeated use and reflect alterations in synaptic transmission

1. any drug can be fatal if a person takes enough of it
   1. Sedatives, narcotics and alcohol carry the greatest risk
      1. these drugs are synergistic with each other
         1. respiratory system grinds to a halt causing death within a brief period

Anmerkungen:

• - are physiological damage

1. Drugs cause tissue damage directly

Anmerkungen:

• health impairing behaviour Negative effects of drugs on physical health are often indirect results of the drug's impact on attitudes, intentions, and behaviour. ie not eating or sleeping, impaired motor coordination etc