Psychopathology

Definitions of abnormality
1. Definition of abnormality: A psychological of behavioural state leading to impairment of interpersonal functioning and/or distress to others
2. Deviation from social norms
  1. Any behaviour that varies or differs from societies social explicit or implicit rules is considered abnormal
    1. Explicit rules- i.e. laws
    2. Implicit rules- unspoken rules i.e. not laughing at funerals
  2. Weakness: What is considered a social norm in one culture might not be in another
  3. Strength: Accounts for developmental norms
3. Failure to Function Adequately
  1. Strength: This definition makes abnormality to judge objectively
  2. Weakness: There are times when it would be perfectly normal to experience some of the criteria
  3. A person is abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life
    1. Set of abnormal characteristics: -personal distress/suffering -maladaptive behaviour -unconventionality of behaviour -unpredictability -irrationality -observer discomfort -violation of moral standards
4. Statistical Infrequency
  1. Strength: When using this definition to define abnormality no judgements are made
  2. Weakness Some rare behaviours and characteristics are desirable
  3. Behaviours that are statistically rare should be seen as abnormal
5. Deviation from ideal mental health
  1. Strength: This definition allows the therapist and client to target specific areas
  2. Weakness: The criteria set by this definition are unrealistic
  3. If someone deviates from Jahoda's list of ideal mental health they are considered abnormal
    1. Jahoda's list of ideal mental health: Positive attitude towards self, self-actualisation, resistance to stress, autonomy, accurate perception of reality, and, mastery of the environment
Phobias
1. Phobias are anxiety disorders characterised by extreme fear and anxiety, triggered by an object, place or situation
2. Characterisitcs of Phobias
  1. Behavioural
    1. Endurance
    2. Panic
    3. Avoidance
  2. Emotional
    1. Unreasonable response
    2. Persistant, excessive fear/anxiety
  3. Cognitive
    1. Distorted perceptions
    2. Recognition of exaggerated anxiety
3. Two Process Model
  1. Classical conditioning suggests phobias are learnt through association
    1. Classical conditioning: fear of dogs UCS (biting) --------------> UCR (Fear) UCS(Biting)+NS (dog)------> UCR (Fear) CS(Dog) --------->CR(Fear)
  2. Operant Conditioning is suggested to maintain phobias
    1. Person is afraid of spiders, so runs away. Escape and reduction of fear acts as negative reinforcer, so likelihood increased that they will continue to avoid spiders. When an individual avoids an unpleasent situation the behaviour results in a positive consequence, so the behaviour is likely to be repeated
  3. Strength of CC: Little Albert Study
  4. Weakness of CC: Not all phobias develop as result of CC
  5. Eval Point : Di Gallo (1996)
4. Treating Phobias
  1. Systematic Desensitisation
    1. Strength: Works fast, requires little effort, cheap (can be self administered), accessible to all
    2. Weakness: Ethical issues, right to withdraw. If the patient wishes to withdraw the therapy will be ineffective
    3. -Hierarchy of increasingly fearful situations - Deep muscle relaxation techniques taught - move through steps when comfortable - Length of therapy depends on clients
  2. Flooding
    1. Strength : Wolpe treated girls phobia of cars, proved it works
    2. Weakness: Not suitable for patients in bad health
    3. Patient is exposed to phobic stimulus suddenly with no build up.
    4. Can be done in vivo or virtual reality
    5. Sessions last 2-3 hours, but only one session might be needed
Depression
1. Depression is an affective mood disorder involving lengthy disturbances of emotions
2. Characteristics of depression
  1. Behavioural
    1. Aggression and Self harm
    2. Disruption to sleep and eating
  2. Emotional
    1. Anger
    2. Lowered Mood
  3. Cognitive
    1. Poor concentration
    2. Attending to and dwelling on the negative
3. Explanations
  1. Beck's Negative Triad
    1. An individual's behaviour is influenced by their schemas --------> Negative cognitive biases ------> Depression
      1. A depressed person's negative schemas, together with their cognitive biases, maintain the negative triad.
  2. Ellis' ABC model
    1. Depression is the result of irrational thinking
    2. Ellis believed that people who are depressed blame external events for their unhappiness, whereas he suggested that it is their interpretation of these events that is to blame
    3. To Explain his process Ellis developed the ABC model- A: Activating event B: Beliefs C:Consequences These result in depression
  3. Evaluation of explanation of depression
    1. Cognitive explanations are not the only way to explain depression
      1. Biological approach suggests neurotransmitters
    2. The idea that depression linked to irrational thinking+negative schemas+negative triad supported by research
      1. Bourey et al
4. Treatment: Cognitive Behavioural Therapies (CBT)
  1. CBT: Began in 1960's, most commonly used psychological treatment for depression
  2. Evaluation
OCD: Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
1. Anxiety Disorder where sufferers experience persistant and intrusive thoughts occurring as obsessions, compulsions or both
  1. Obsessions are generally what people are thinking and are inappropriate ideas such as being convinced there are germs everywhere, this leads to extreme anxiety
  2. Compulsions are uncontrollable urges to repetitively perform tasks and behaviours such as washing hands to get rid of germs
  3. Obsessions lead to Compulsions
  4. Affects about 2 - 2.5% of the population, it effects both genders equally
  5. A person must feel driven to perform these compulsions on most days for a period of two weeks or more before they are diagnosed
2. Behavioural Characteristics: -Excessive repetitive behaviours to reduce anxiety, -counting, tapping or repeating certain words to reduce anxiety, -Spending a lot of time washing, cleaning or checking, -Demanding Reassurances, -Excessive Double Checking, -Repeatedly checking in on family and friends, -Spending lots of time making sure 'things are just so'
3. Emotional Characteristics: -distress and anxiety about being prevented from performing rituals, -Overwhelming fear of being contaminated or fear of causing harm to themselves or others, -Intense distress when objects are not orderly or facing the right way, -Doubts about having checked/performed compulsions, -depression - low mood and lack of enjoyment, -irrational guilt and disgust
4. Cognitive Characteristics: -Obsessive, irrational and inappropriate thoughts/images, -Catastrophic thinking (if the smallest thing isn't done correctly it is a disaster), -Performing mental acts such as praying or counting, -Tendency to overestimate the likelihood of danger, -Hypervigilant - maintain constant alertness and attention focus on hazards
5. OCD cycle
6. Genetic explanation suggests a person will develop OCD based on their genes. This also explains why patients often have family members with OCD. OCD is thought to be polygenic.
7. Candidate genes are ones which, through research, have been implicated in the development in OCD. These genes tend to be involved in regulating serotonin, a neurotransmitter which facilitates message transfer across synapses
8. However it is recognised that not everyone in a given family gets OCD so there must be additional factors. The diathesis - stress model suggests that people gain a vulnerability towards OCD through genes but an environmental stressor is also required. This could be a stressful event for example a bereavement.
9. Neural explanations of OCD focus on the role of neurotransmitters and the structure of the brain. For example, some cases of OCD may result from low levels of seratonin in the brain which affects the transmission of mood - related information. Finally research has also suggested that OCD may result from impairment of the frontal lobes which control our decision making.

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