5015246
Beschreibung
Mindmap von Beth Tonks, aktualisiert more than 1 year ago
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Erstellt von Beth Tonks
vor mehr als 8 Jahre
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GRANT ET AL. (1998)
CONTEXT-DEPENDENT
MEMORY
- INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT
- Loftus and Palmer showed that the way
witnessed are questioned can affect what
they remember, but do we remember
information we have learned better in the
context (environment) we learned it in?
- Loftus and Palmer showed that the way
witnessed are questioned can affect what
they remember, but do we remember
information we have learned better in the
context (environment) we learned it in?
- RESEARCH AIMS AND
QUESTIONS
- To investigate whether context cues
are important when remembering
newly learned information. To
investigate whether learned
information is remembered better in
a matching environment than in a
non-matching environment.
- To investigate whether context cues
are important when remembering
newly learned information. To
investigate whether learned
information is remembered better in
a matching environment than in a
non-matching environment.
- RESEARCH METHOD
- A laboratory experiment
having an independent
measures design.
- Possible to control extraneous variables.
Same silent/noisy conditions, same
instructions. Timed two minute break to
ensure retrieval was from long-term
memory. Such controls raise validity and
reliability. Some variables could not be
standardised so well.
- Possible to control extraneous variables.
Same silent/noisy conditions, same
instructions. Timed two minute break to
ensure retrieval was from long-term
memory. Such controls raise validity and
reliability. Some variables could not be
standardised so well.
- A laboratory experiment
having an independent
measures design.
- SAMPLE
- A group of 39 students from Iowa
state university aged 17-56, 17
females and 23 males.
- All participants were chosen from
acquaintances of experimenters, so unlikely to
have formed a representative sample, although
there was a good age spread and roughly equal
numbers of males and females. Knowledge
that their friends (experimenters) were
psychology students may have affected their
approach to the study by introducing demand
characteristics. They may have been more likely
to have worked out the aim of the study and
tried harder in the matching conditions than if
they had ben drawn from a sample who did
not necessarily have psychology students for
friends.
- All participants were chosen from
acquaintances of experimenters, so unlikely to
have formed a representative sample, although
there was a good age spread and roughly equal
numbers of males and females. Knowledge
that their friends (experimenters) were
psychology students may have affected their
approach to the study by introducing demand
characteristics. They may have been more likely
to have worked out the aim of the study and
tried harder in the matching conditions than if
they had ben drawn from a sample who did
not necessarily have psychology students for
friends.
- A group of 39 students from Iowa
state university aged 17-56, 17
females and 23 males.
- PROCEDURE
- Students were tested one at a time. 8
experimenters and four experimental conditions:
silence/silence (matching), silence/noise
(non-matching), noise/noise (matching), noise/silence
(non-matching). Participants in all conditions worse
headphones. Noisy condition - participants heard
recording of the noise in their cafeteria consisting of
occasional distinct words or phrases amid a general
conversational noise mixed with the sound produced
by movement of chairs and dishes, played at a
moderately loud level. Silent participants heard
nothing.
- Participants read a 2-page article on psychoimmunology
(Hales, 1984), having been told they would be tested on
the material, allowed to highlight/underline. The test
involved 10 short answer questions and 16 multiple choice
questions. The time taken to read the article was
recorded in minutes for each participant with a 2 minute
break between reading the article and the start of the
test. Participants were randomly allocated to each of the
four conditions.
- Participants read a 2-page article on psychoimmunology
(Hales, 1984), having been told they would be tested on
the material, allowed to highlight/underline. The test
involved 10 short answer questions and 16 multiple choice
questions. The time taken to read the article was
recorded in minutes for each participant with a 2 minute
break between reading the article and the start of the
test. Participants were randomly allocated to each of the
four conditions.
- Students were tested one at a time. 8
experimenters and four experimental conditions:
silence/silence (matching), silence/noise
(non-matching), noise/noise (matching), noise/silence
(non-matching). Participants in all conditions worse
headphones. Noisy condition - participants heard
recording of the noise in their cafeteria consisting of
occasional distinct words or phrases amid a general
conversational noise mixed with the sound produced
by movement of chairs and dishes, played at a
moderately loud level. Silent participants heard
nothing.
- RESULTS
- As measured by both short-answer questions and
multiple-choice questions, in both the noisy and silent
conditions, more information was remembered in the
matching conditions than in the non-matching recall
conditions.
- As measured by both short-answer questions and
multiple-choice questions, in both the noisy and silent
conditions, more information was remembered in the
matching conditions than in the non-matching recall
conditions.
- CONCLUSIONS
- Context cues appear to be
important in the retrieval of
newly-learned information,
suggesting that students may
perform better in exams by
studying in silence.
- Context cues appear to be
important in the retrieval of
newly-learned information,
suggesting that students may
perform better in exams by
studying in silence.
- DATA
- Quantitative - statistics allow easy comparison of
the conditions, clearly showing that the match or
mismatch of study and learning conditions affects
retrieval. No analysis of essay-style questions
means no comparison of qualitative data.
Conclusions suggest studying in silence is
preferable, but if students feel unable to
concentrate, or cannot work for as long without
some additional source of stimulation, they may
end up learning less. Either source of qualitative
data may have added to the completeness of the
findings.
- Quantitative - statistics allow easy comparison of
the conditions, clearly showing that the match or
mismatch of study and learning conditions affects
retrieval. No analysis of essay-style questions
means no comparison of qualitative data.
Conclusions suggest studying in silence is
preferable, but if students feel unable to
concentrate, or cannot work for as long without
some additional source of stimulation, they may
end up learning less. Either source of qualitative
data may have added to the completeness of the
findings.
- ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
- Participants were aware they were participating. No deception.
Debriefed after testing. Given enough information to give
informed consent. They were asked if they had any questions
and were given the right to withdraw at any point during the
study.
- Participants were aware they were participating. No deception.
Debriefed after testing. Given enough information to give
informed consent. They were asked if they had any questions
and were given the right to withdraw at any point during the
study.
- VALIDITY
- Controls and use of realistic materials - valid.
Although the findings suggest silent study is best,
implementing such a strategy may be unwise. If
the participants had been retrieving information
within an existing framework of knowledge, the
results might have been different. The silent
condition in the experiment (30 minutes) dd have
an effect but this may not be generalisable to
longer periods of study. The negative effects of
boredom, day dreaming or lack of motivation may
mitigate the benefit of matched environments,
reducing validity. Experiment did represent the
study and learning conditions for students
reasonably well and the material used was more
like course material than other items typically
used in memory experiments e.g. word lists
- Controls and use of realistic materials - valid.
Although the findings suggest silent study is best,
implementing such a strategy may be unwise. If
the participants had been retrieving information
within an existing framework of knowledge, the
results might have been different. The silent
condition in the experiment (30 minutes) dd have
an effect but this may not be generalisable to
longer periods of study. The negative effects of
boredom, day dreaming or lack of motivation may
mitigate the benefit of matched environments,
reducing validity. Experiment did represent the
study and learning conditions for students
reasonably well and the material used was more
like course material than other items typically
used in memory experiments e.g. word lists
- RELIABILITY
- Several aspects of the study were
standardised - materials, procedure -
ensured reliability of the procedure
between participants and between
conditions, and allowed for
replication. Similarity in the pattern
of the results across test conditions
suggests the results are reliable.
However, as 8 different students
acted as experimenters, the amount
of time given for the initial reading
of the article could not be controlled,
which may reduce reliability.
- Several aspects of the study were
standardised - materials, procedure -
ensured reliability of the procedure
between participants and between
conditions, and allowed for
replication. Similarity in the pattern
of the results across test conditions
suggests the results are reliable.
However, as 8 different students
acted as experimenters, the amount
of time given for the initial reading
of the article could not be controlled,
which may reduce reliability.
- PRACTICAL
APPLICATIONS
- Direct applicability to students' study habits,
providing a good foundation for at least
suggesting to students that they should try
studying in silence. There is also evidence
for the source monitoring hypothesis and
its implications for eyewitness testimony.
- Johnson et al. (1993)
suggest that, according to
source monitoring,
recalling the source of a
memory matters. If
factors such as leading
questions distort
eyewitnesses' ability to
identify the source of their
memory, worsening the
accuracy of their
testimony, context may,
conversely, help to improve
their accuracy.
- Johnson et al. (1993)
suggest that, according to
source monitoring,
recalling the source of a
memory matters. If
factors such as leading
questions distort
eyewitnesses' ability to
identify the source of their
memory, worsening the
accuracy of their
testimony, context may,
conversely, help to improve
their accuracy.
- Direct applicability to students' study habits,
providing a good foundation for at least
suggesting to students that they should try
studying in silence. There is also evidence
for the source monitoring hypothesis and
its implications for eyewitness testimony.
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