Zusammenfassung der Ressource
Rational
Choice
- Cohen (Larry) and Felson -
1979
- Study of 'predatory crimes'
- Routine Activities Theory
- Increase in crime due to victims
changing habits, theorised that by
changing social interactions criminal
behaviour would also change
- Routine activities provide
contact between victim
and offender due to the
offenders motivation, the
suitability of the victim
and a lack of
guardianship
- Victim traits such as vulnerability,
levels of resistance and willingness
to report crimes can determine a
targets suitability
- Offender traits can be motivation,
method of attack and familiarity of the
area to incentivise committing a crime
- The location plays a key part, things
such as natural surveillance,
guardianship/bystanders and
presence of disinhibitors can
motivate or demotivate an offender
- An effective guardian can be
someone who may intervene to
stop an offence and/or report a
crime/offending behaviour.
Also members of police activity
and monitoring/criminal
detecting technology are also
considered effective enough to
be 'guardians'
- The presence of an
effective guardian was
considered to impact
whether a crime would
be committed or not
and was a very
important part of the
theory.
- Crime is seen as
a calculation
where an
individual
determines
committing the
crime benefits
them more than
not
- For someone or
something to be
considered as a
guardian type
deterrent though it
must be effective
- Witnesses can also act as an informal
social control as their presence can remind
offenders of shaming and condemnation
they may face by engaging in criminal
activity
- These elements for a
crime to occur can be
condensed into
offender motivation,
suitable target/victim
and lack of
guardianship
- Wilcox
2010
- Based on Cohen and Felsons Data is
was shown that as more women
increased within the workplace so
did an increase in household crime
due to a lack of suitable
'guardianship' at the property
during the day. It was also apparent
that street crime such as predatory
crime and robbery rose especially
against women due to comuting
needs
- An offender
was
considered to
be a rational
actor who
capitalised on
circumstances
- Cornish and Clarke - 1986, 1987
- Criminal decision making and motivation
- Theorised that criminals
are trying to attain
common needs of non
criminals - These
common needs are
determined through a
rational decision making
process to identify
opportunities.
- The examination of the
crime 'event' will
influence involvement
decision, the
examination is based
on the presence of
factors that then
prompt stage
advancment
- Background factors:
Psychological
characteristics i.e.
intelligence, family
background,
demographic factors,
education and
neighbourhood
- Previous learning and
experience: previous
successes, self-perception
of their skills and ability to
elude the police, ability to
move on or disappear
stolen items
- Situational Factors: peer
persuasion, arguments
with a spouse, alcohol or
drug use
- Other factors are degree of
effort, amount/immediacy of
reward, likelihood and severity
of punishment and moral costs
- Do time, effort, rewards (and
costs) of the crime outweigh
the alternative avenues such
as work, gambling and
borrowing etc. ?
- Decision making process stages:
- Background factors
- Need for
money, or
- Previous
experience and
amount of effort
required
- Blocked
opportunities
- Readiness to
commit crime
- Crime
- If an offender
has previous
experience
they may skip
other stages
and consider
only situational
factors
- Crime as an
event to be
examined
through the
thought
processes of
those
involved
- Involvement decisions can be quick or
lengthy but the cost benefit analysis is
considered at each stage;
- Do I ... become involved?
...continue to involve myself
in crime? ...stop involving
myself in crime?
- Jeremy Bentham -
1789
- Pleasure and pain
- It is pain and
pleasure that, "...
point(s) out what
we ought to do,
as well as to
determine what
we shall do."
- Thought that indivduals
estimated pain or
pleasure of a circumstance
by determining 4 different
areas. 1. Its intensity, 2. Its
duration, 3. Its certainty
or uncertainty and 4. Its
propinquity or
remoteness
- This meant that
punishment should
outweigh the pleasure
of commiting an
unlawful act and lean
towards the pain
principle for each of
these areas.
- 2. Followed a
theory of -
Hedonistic
Utilitarianism:
People should
aim to
maximize
pleasure and
minimize pain
- John Stuart Mill -
1836
- Economic man
- 3. Eudiamonistic
Utilitarianism: Argued
that utility shouldn't be
measured by pleasure
but by happiness
instead as it is a higher
standard
- The economic
man therefore
acts rationally
but in an
entirely self
serving manner
in order to
maximize their
utility
(happiness)
- "...the
economic
man seeks -
wealth,
leisure, luxury
and sexual
relations." -
1836
- "Civilisation
in every
one of its
aspects is a
struggle
against the
animal
instincts."
- Beleived social
norms such as
morals and strong
religious
influences of the
time controlled
people from
misbehaving
- Origins
- Main concept: actors
and choice
- Beccaria - 1764
- Looked at the legal system
and argued for utilitarianism
- 1. Utilitarianism: the
doctrine that actions are
right if they are useful or
for the benefit of a
majority.
- "Such punishments,
therefore, and such a mode
of inflicting them, ought to
be chosen, as will make the
strongest and most lasting
impression on the minds of
others, with the least
torment to the body of the
criminal." - 1767
- People are ruled by a
primitive fear but are still
capable of rationality
- By entering into a 'contract' with
others via following governance,
laws etc, allowing them a form
of protection - authority
- Rules of conduct are formed
that everyone in society must
follow this is the social contract
- If people observe others
violating the law without
consequence the social
contract can break down
- Key thought was that everyone has the same
rational capabilities and all are
selfish/self-serving
- Social Contract
- Lombroso
-2006
- When thinking shifted
towards causes of
criminal activity
Lombroso theorised
that criminals had,
'limitless vanity and
inordinate sense of
self..'
- He saw physical traits as
being criminal but also
psychological anomalies,
noting that those of moral
insanity were rational but
lacking morality and
remarks on the similarities
of the morally insane and
the born criminal
- Situational Crime
prevention
- Increased risk of
detection; Natural
(street lights,
defensible space)
and Formal (CCTV,
speed cameras,
red lights)
Surveillance
- Alter
architecture
and
surveillance
to increase
perceived
effort of
committing a
crime
- Creating the
belief
whether real
or false that
detection is
heightened
- Looks primarly at crime
opportunities and reducing the
potential of crime to be committed,
whilst aiming to minimise crime
displacement to other areas
- Types of supervisors: Guardians
(monitoring suitable targets i.e.
bystander inhibits shoplifting) ,
Handlers (monitoring likely
offenders - parent makes sure child
gets home) , Monitors (managing
amenable places - hotel maid
impairs trespasser)
- Remove excuses for
crime; Required ID,
Age restricted
regulations etc.
- Remove / reduce the
rewards; This can include
removing the target
altogether. Registration and
location monitoring of
products, reduction of
targets - remove car radios
from view, women's refuge,
deny benefits i.e. remove
graffiti
- Target
hardening;
Physical
barriers
such as
safes,
locks,
cameras
etc.
- Shearing and Stenning - 1984
Found street markings, signs
and physical path
barriers/routes reduced
crime potential and incivilities
- Crawford - 1998
'Situational crime
prevention involves the
management, design or
manipulation of the
immediate physical
environment so as to
reduce the opportunities
for specific crimes.'
- Utilitarian Principles
of crime prevention
- Criminals will
commit
offences if
they don't
believe they
will be caught
or punished.
- Creating a
negative
image of
offending will
deter the
majority of
individuals
- This can be done through norms and
laws which maintain the image that
offending acts and behaviour will be
noticed and punished
- General
deterrence theory
- Works to deter
the general
population
against
deviance
- Specific deterrence
theory
- Works to
punish the
offender to
prevent
reoffending
- Ideas such as
shock sentencing
and mandatory
arrests for specific
crimes to end
problematic
behaviours
- Incapacitation in
the UK often refers
to imprisonment
as a punishment
for offenders
- Punishment
must be
effective
- Lifestyle theory /
victimisation
- Need to examine the role
of the victim in a crime
and the impacts of
attempts to provide
security
- Hindelang,
Gottfredson and
Garofalo - 1978
- Looked at why some are
at greater risk of
victimisation, and
differential victimisation
rates i.e. some lifestyles
created greater risk of
victimisation than others
- Wilcox 2010
- Study found that subgroups
experienced greater
victimisation risk.
Specifically men, young
adults and African
Americans were at an
increased risk, compared to
women, the elderly and
whites
- Social roles - define what people are expected to do
- Position in societies social structure - what is their
socio-economic background. High status = less risk,
low status -= increased risk
- Rational component - decisions made regarding
behaviours that are seen as desirable
- These classifications can all be applied to different
areas i.e. sweat shop workers, street racers as well
to criminal behaviour
- Different crimes =
differing susceptibility to
being a victim and
potential to be an
offender
- Lifestyles of offenders
and victims highlight the
likelihood of being
'involved' in a crime.