Zusammenfassung der Ressource
Psychology Memory
- Coding, Capacity and Duration of memory
- Coding - the format of which inforrmation is stored in the various stores
- Research on coding
- Baddeley- different lists of words, some that were
acoustically similar , dissilmilar semantically similar
and dissimilar
- The participants were asked to immediately repeat the list
of words. - they tend to do worse on acoustically similar
words.
- If the participants were asked to recall the list after 20 mins did worse on
semantically similar words
- Suggests that info is coded semantically in LTM
- Evaluation on research into coding
- ARTIFICIAL STIMULI
- Baddeley used random used artificial words rather
than meaningful words
- Cautious about generalising the
findings to different memory tasks
- Capacity - How much
information the memory
stores can hold
- Research on Capacity
- Span of memory and chunking
- Miller - 7+/-2
- Capacity of STM
- Evaluation of research into capacity
- Not so many chunks
- Cowan 2001 - concluded that STM was only four chunks
- Duration - How long the information is stored for in the memory stores
- Research on duration
- Duration of STM
- Peterson and Peterson - 24
students were given a trigram to
remember. they had to count
backwards from a 3 digit number.
they were stopped at 3,6,9,12,15
and 18 seconds
- They found that as the time of the
retention interval increased the
amount of right answers decreased
- Suggests that STM has a short Duration
- 18 - 30 seconds
- Duration of LTM
- Bahrick - High school yearbook test - photo recognition test and free recall
- PPts who were tested within 15 years of
graduation were about 90% accurate in photo
recognition.
- free recall - 60% accuracy
- After 48 years recall declined to 70% recognition
- Free recall - 30% accuracy
- Suggests LTM Has a long duration
- Evaluation into research for duration
- Peterson and Peterson - meaningless stimuli
- trying to memorise trigrams
does not reflect real life -
lacked external validity
- Bahrick - confounding variables were not controlled
- looked in yearbooks which means they could
have rehearsed them over the years
- The multistore model
- Sensory register
- Stimulus from the environment
- Two main stores - iconic memory - visual info -
coded visually
- echoic memory - auditory info - coded acoustically
- Short term memory
- 7+/-2
- coded acoustically
- 18-30 seconds unless rehearsed
- Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat materials to ourselves over and over again it then passes onto the LTM
- Long term memory
- Unlimited capacity
- Memories can last a lifetime
- LTM is coded semantically - meaning
- Memories are transfered to STM through a process called retrieval
- Evaluation of the multistore model
- Supporting research evidence -
strength - Baddeley we tend to mix
up words.
- There is more than one type of STM -
shallice and warrington KF
- There is more than one type of rehearsal -
Craik and Watkins - 2 types of rehearsal -
maintenance rehearsal and elaborative
rehearsal
- Types of Long term memory
- Episodic memory
- Is the ability to recall events (episodes) from our lives
- The memories are time stamped
- Your memory of a single episode will include several elements such as people, places, objects, and behaviours all woven together to create one memory
- You have to make a conscious
effort to recall episodes. you may
be able to do it quickly or it may
take a while but you are aware
you are looking for that memory
- Semantic memory
- This stores our knowledge of the world - This includes facts
- This memory has often been linked
with a dictionary and encyclopedia
- These memories are not time stamped
- semantic memory is less personal and more about the facts
- Procedural memory
- This is our memory for actions and skills or
basically how we do things
- We can recall these memories without
consciousness. such as driving a car or
riding a bike.
- Our ability to do this depends on
the procedural memory
- Evaluation of different types of LTM
- Clinical evidence - HM and Clive
Wearing - episodic memory effected,
semantic memory unaffected. supports
Tulving's theory
- neuroimaging evidence - brian scans
- Real life application - allows psychologists
to target certain areas in peoples
memory to improve their lives
- The Working Memory Model
- The central executive
- Co-ordinates the activities of the three slave stores
- The central executive has a very limited processing capacity
- Phonological loop
- one of the slave stores it deals with the audirtory info
- subdivided into
- phonological store
- Stores the words we hear
- articulatory process
- which allows maintenance rehearsal. the
capacity of the loop is believed to be two
seconds
- Visuo-spatial sketchpad
- Stores visual and/or spatial info when required
- sub divided into
- the visual cache - stores visual data
- the inner scribe - records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
- Episodic buffer
- Added to the model by Baddeley in 2000
- It is a temporary store for info intergrating
the visual, spatial, and verbal info processed
by other stores and maintaining a sense of
time sequencing
- The episodic buffer links working memory to the
LTM and wide cognitive processes such as
perception
- Evaluation of the working memory model
- Clinical evidence - Shallice and Warrington - KF
- Dual task performance - supports the
seperate existancee of the visuo-spatial
sketchpad. BAddeley showed that
people hadmore difficulty doing two
visual tasks at the same time. this is
because visual tasks compete. where as
if they are different tasks there is no
competition
- Lack of clarity over the working memory
model - it doesnt really explain anything.
- Explanations for forgetting.
- Interference
- Proactive
- old memories get in the way of
recalling new memories
- Retroactive
- New memories get in the way of
recalling older memories
- Study - McGeoch and McDonald -
Retroactive forgetting
- PPTS had to learn a list of words. They were split
into six groups. 1. synonyms. 2. antonyms. 3. words
unrelated to the original list. 4. nonsense syllables.
5. three digit numbers. 6. no new list
- the most similar material
(synonyms) produced the worst
recall.
- This shows that interference
is strongest when the
memories are similar
- Evaluation
- Evidence form lab studies - This is a strength because lab
experiments control the effects of irrelevant influences and
thus gives us confidence that interference is a valid
explanation for forgetting.
- Artificial materials- This is a limitation
because it makes interference much
more likely in a lab. Interference may
not be likely as an explanation for
forgetting in an everyday life as it is in
a lab
- Real life studies - This study shows that
interference explanations can apply to at
least some everyday situations
- Retreval failure
- Encoding specificity principle
- if a cue to help us it needs to be
present at encoding and at retreval
- If there are no cues or if they are
different forgetting is likely to happen
- Context-dependent forgetting
- Badeley's divers - learn on land recall
on land or learn in water recall in water
got the best results
- State dependent forgetting
- Carter and Cassidy study - learn on drugs recall on drugs etc.
- learning and recalling in the same state gave better
results that when learning and recalling in different
states
- Evaluation
- Supporting evidence - this is a strength
because it increases the validity of the
explanation of forgetting
- Questioning context effects - this is a limitation because it
means that the real life applications of retreval failure due
to contextual cues don't actually explain much forgetting
- Recall vs recognition - this is a limitation because it
means that the presence or absence of a cue only
affects memory when you test it in a certain way
- Factors effecting eye witness testimonies
- Misleading information
- Leading questions
- Loftus and Palmer - car accident video, questionnaire, changed
the verb different serverity e.g crash, smash, collided.
- findings - the mean estimated of the speed of the car increased with
the serverity of the verb describing the incident
- Response bias explanation - suggests that the wording
of the question has no effect on the ppts memory, but
it influences how they decide to answer.
- substitution explanation - the wording of
the leading question actually changes the
ppts memory of the incident
- post event discussion
- Gabbert et al - showed each ppts different angles of the same
crime. Then the ppts discussed what they saw
- findings were that 71% of the ppts mistakenly recalled
aspects of the crime that they did not see but had picked
up on in the group discussion.
- Evaluation
- Useful real life application - it makes a
huge positive impact on peoples lives
- The tasks are artificial - it
tells us little about how
people would react if they
witnessed a real crime
- individual differences -
younger people seem to give
more detailed accounts of the
crimes etc
- The effects of Anxiety
- Anxiety has a negative effect on recall
- Johnson and Scott - knife with blood or pen with oil
- They found that 49% with the pen picked
the man out of pictures
- Only 33% with the knife could pick him out
- the tunnel theory of memory argues that
witnesses attention narrows to focus on a
weapon because it is the source of the anxiety
- Anxiety has a positive effect on recall
- Yuille and Cutshall
- shop owner shot someone interviewed the witnesses
- The witnesses were detailed in their account. little change
after 5 months. the witnesses who claimed to suffer the most
stress were more accurate that the less stressed witnesses
- contradictory findings
- Yerkes Dodson law
- Evaluation
- Weapon Focus Effect may not be relevant
- it is due to unusualness rather than
anxiety and therefore tells us nothing
about the effect of anxiety on EWT
- Field studies sometimes lack control - the
researchers have no control over what is said in
the post event discussion and it could be because
of extraneous variables that has effect on the
accuracy of EWT
- Ethical issues - putting people at risk of
psychological harm
- Improving the accuracy of EWT - cognitive interviews
- Report everything - encouraged to say
every little detail about the event
- Reinstate the context - return to the
original crime scene in their minds
- Reverse the order events
should be recalled
chronologically in reverse
- Change perspective - recall the
incident from someone else's view
point
- Enhanced cognitive interview - focus on the social dynamics of
the interaction e.g eye contact and reducing anxiety
- Evaluation
- The CI are time consuming - spend more time on these than
standard police interviews
- Some elements may be more valuable than
others - using combo of report everything and
context reinstatement they found they got more
information that was accurate from the witness
- Supports for the effectiveness of the ECI- more
correct info than standard police interviews