RUSSIA

SOCIETY IN RUSSIA 1855-1914   ALEXANDER II Peasants in 1855: -Serfs -Heavily dependent on Mir -Religious & patriarchal society -Supported Tsardom -Illiterate an uneducated  -Lack of prosperity  -Faced farming problems like soil fertility.  -Fedual dues were up to 30-40% Serfdom: -Problems: -Inefficiencies agriculture (backward methods, strip farming) -Lack of incentive to work hard (profits went to owners) -Developing industries were short of workers -Factors against serfdom: -Social: a. liberal argument b. peasant unrest. -Economic: a. agrarian based economy with no spare labour to migrate to industry b. lack of innovation c. slave labour was less effective than payed labour. -Political: a. Abolish serfdom from above rather than for it to do it itself from above (As said by AII) b.Influence of Milyutin (progressive liberal very involved in emancipation)  -Military: a. Defeat in Crimean War highlighted inefficiencies of conscripted serfs  Emancipation Edict: -44 million peasants were freed, private (1861), public (1866). -Peasants could now: own land, leave the mir with a passport, and farm for their own profit.  HOWEVER: -Ex-serfs had to pay for their lands (ex-serfs received the worst 1/3 of land (landowners received the rest)). -Peasants left with redemption payments of 49years.  -Mir became new land owner.  Developments: -Annual division of land led to smaller and smaller plots. -Their inefficient farming led to shortages. -Many peasants abandoned farming (too poor to meet the redemption payments) -Emergence of a kulak class. -Local Gov reforms: -Introduction of local government in countryside: -Provincial zemstva : looked after public health etc. Members appointed by government.  -Zemstva: Developed infrastructure (10,000 schools built to tackle illiteracy) . District council controlled by nobles.  -Mir: Collective peasant households. Elections for leaders.  Peasants in 1881: -Ex-serfs. -Able to buy land. -Emergence of Kulak class. -Some migration from countryside.  -Strong allegiance and dependence still on the mir. -Had to acquire passports to leave.  -Redemption payments & indirect taxation left them crippled financially.  ALEXANDER III Peasants in 1881: -Ex-serfs. -Able to buy land. -Emergence of Kulak class. -Some migration from countryside.  -Strong allegiance and dependence still on the mir. -Had to acquire passports to leave.  -Redemption payments & indirect taxation left them crippled financially.  Measures to improve their conditions: -1882 redemption payments reduced by 27% -1883 peasant land bank. Established by Bunge in an attempt to help peasants purchase their land. It advance 25-50% of the cost of new land at an interest rate of 5.5%. (This was very high relative to the Nobles' land bank.  -1885 poll tax abolished. Replaced by inheritance tax. This helped ease the burden of taxation on the peasants. -1889 volost courts. It was a court of the peasant community.  Measures to worsen their conditions: -1889: Land captains introduced. Like police force in the countryside. There were a way to monitor rural behaviour and impose fear and control. -High import tariff on fertilisers etc.  -High indirect tax on basic commodities.  -Forced mass grain exports under Vyshnegradsky - led to shortages and 1891-92 famine.  -1891 Great Famine. 350,000 deaths.  -Poorest peasants could not afford to live. Constant 'land hunger'.  Peasants in 1894: -Largely ineffective peasant land bank and indirect taxation meant their prosperity had not much increased.  -Increased consumption of consumer goods. -Further emergence of Kulak class who: bought/rented land, employed labour, farmed more efficiently.  NICHOLAS II Peasants in 1894: -Largely ineffective peasant land bank and indirect taxation meant their prosperity had not much increased.  -Increased consumption of consumer goods. -Further emergence of Kulak class who: bought/rented land, employed labour, farmed more efficiently.  The effect of the 'money economy': -More money was put into the countryside. This led to: -An improvement in living conditions (especially for peasants nearer towns and cities). -An improvement in infrastructure: better access to hospitals, schools, railways etc. (especially for peasants nearer towns and cities). Stolypin's policies: -He abolished redemption payments in 1907.  -He reduced the power of the land captains. -Peasants were no longer tied to the mir. -Literacy rose up to 40% by 1914. -By 1900, there were 9 million migrant workers. Peasant unrest 1903-1904: -Dubbed as the 'Years of the Red Cockerel'. This was a significant period of unrest after the 1901 famine and the Russo-Japanese War.  Peasant unrest 1905: -1905: reaction to revolution. June-July- landlord houses were built. Refusal to pay rent/taxes.  -This lead to peasant unions and societies. In July, the all Peasant Union met near Moscow.  Peasant unrest 1906: -Unrest after Stolypin's efforts to break up the communes. Exacerbated tensions after bad harvests -Separators faces violence and hostility.  -Troops were sent in to ease tensions. Oct 05-Apr 06: 15,000 executed. 45,000 deported. -In 1906, field court marshals were introduced. They sped up the process of trials and executions. Peasants were hung in their hundreds. What has been dubbed 'Stolypin's necktie'.  Peasants by 1914:  -Villages were relatively quiet. -Several good harvests eased tensions. -Close allegiance between Tsar and peasantry. -Still bound by indirect taxation. -Under Stolypin's influence, they were more prosperous.  The middle classes Middle classes in 1855: -Most could be found in bureaucratic roles and there were some businessmen/merchants.  -Very small part of the population. Middle classes 1880-1914 -These men were deeply religious, though welcomed Western ideas & technology. -Not like the bourgeois in Europe -They formed 2m of the population -Increasing political influence: After 1908, many took up places in the Duma. 1906- The Association of Industry and Trade was formed and had significant political influence.  They became increasingly involved politically, many joined the zemstva Industry business and commerce: -Families made money from industries (railways, banking etc.) Significant in the entrepreneurial internal innovation (like the Morozovs)  -Merchant mayors ensured Moscow had a tram system by 1895 and controlled the water supply.  The professions: -Roughly 1 million professionals by 1914. (the number of teachers, doctors, surgeons  -They formed professional associations. 1892: the first All-Russian Teachers' Congress established. These groups began to prove threatening to the regime: -The pirogov ninth congress in 1904 ended chaotically, with demands for parliament.  -Professions often liberalists, pushing for liberal reform.  Women: -Teachers and Doctors worked for the Zemstva.  -Significant women could be found in Marxist groups (Alexandra Kollantai)  -1905 women won the right to co-education in universities.  -1908: First all-russian congress of women held in St Petersburg (half of these delegates earned their living) -They had literary success. Middle class voluntary organisations and associations: -These organisations discussed matters from industrialisation (as by the Imperial Economic society) to new technology.  -They were creating a more diverse, less homogenous society. -The state could not control them though often imposed surveillance.  -Their circulating ideas often reciprocated those in Western societies, contributed to modernisation and posed a threat to Tsardom. Alexander II Workers in 1855: -Rusia was not industrialised.  -Some spinning mills around St Petersburg -Some iron-ore mines in the Urals (iron industry technically backward) -Industry only took place in small-scale factories -Conditions were appalling and hours were long.  -Very small portion of the population Social change 1880-1905: -1863-1914; population of St Petersburg quadrupled. By 1900, there were roughly 3 million workers (2.5% of population) -Working conditions: grim, long hours, disciplined for minor infractions, disease was rife, wages very low. -1890s- unemployment an issue. The labour force changed regularly.  -Living conditions: unsanitary, overcrowded, very public. 1/3 of deaths cause by disease, they were still a problem into 20th Century. Wages could not support families.  -Trade Unions were illegal until after 1905 revolution. Zubatov unions were in place, starting from 1901. They were very controlled though did fuel radicals. It spread across the south of the Empire. In 1903, an organised strike became a general strike and Zubatov was dismissed.  Militancy of workers pre-1905: -As 1890s progressed, workers began to resent their conditions and disciplinary punishments.  -Strikes began as early as 1896 - textile workers of St Petersburg - 30,000. This forced the government to limit the working day to 11.5 hours. Menawhile, SDs were encouraging workers to strike. 1899 - major strikes of nearly 100,000 (factory police force was introduced.) -Recession after 1890 affected workes (falling wages and unemployment led to industrial action. Workers returned to villages to exaccerbate peasant unrest.  -The economic impact of the 1904 Russo-Japanese war; fall in trade and lack of materials led to factories closing - loss of jobs. Growing discontent.  Militancy after 1905: -By the end of January - 400,000 workers were on strike. Demonstrations increased in frequency.  -September: another general strike called. Railway workers involved brought a halt to the train service. (2 million workers involved). Explosion of criminality and strains on every public service.  -St Peterburg Soviet formed on 13 October. It met to coordinate the striking workers. Trotsky was leader. Increased militancy of the workers. Social change after 1905: -1912- limited sickness insurance passed by Dumas. (Though this only covered a minority of the workforce).  -Hours remained long and the pay remained less than 1/3rd than other European countries.  -Some schools were provided for the children of workers.  -Increase in workforce led to a strain on public services and deterioration in already crowded cities. -Level of literacy amongst workers in 1914; 64%. (More intellectual proletariat). Workers in 1914: -More active in strikes -Trade Unions legalised -Cap on working day -Conditions still grim, wages still low -More direction from opposition groups (particularly SDs) in leading strikes etc. -Increased literacy --> increased access to revolutionary and radical literature.  Nobility Nobility in 1855: -Less than 1% of the population.  -Often military officers/administrative jobs/judiciary jobs/local police jobs. -Loyal supporters of the Tsar. -Huge variations of wealth. The majority had a low number of sets on could not rely on the institution for a sustainable income.  -Some were already moving to towns & cities to ensure a sustainable income. -Not necessarily conservative - various political standings. The effects of emancipation: -The nobility would maintain a role in policing.  -Landowners were compensated for their loss of land, but not their loss of serfs. This angered some. -They lost power, status and influence.  -Some wanted to form a level of bureaucracy to protect their interests in government. The more liberals one wanted to form position in government as elected representatives.  -The majority were angered by emancipation.  The effects of Alexander II's reforms: -Local gov [nobility dominated the zemstva. Many abused this right and used their position to further their own affairs.] -Judiciary [many became judges and furthered their own interests -Military [the nobility opposed these reforms who didnt want their kind to mix with the lower classes or who didnt want their sons to face compulsory military service]. Change: -They lost a lot of land. In 1861 they owned 80%, in 1905 they owned 40%. -A small proportion of them developed their estates with modern methods. -Some moved to expanding professions. In 1880, 1/5 of university professors came from the nobility.  -Some became investors [as aided by the Nobles' land bank]. -A massive proportion became business men involved in entrepreneurship and industry. Continuity: -Many kept making an income from the civil service/military. -They remained favoured by the autocracy [as evident in AII's reforms] -They kept hold of the top jobs -  1897, of the 1400 top jobs, 1000 were nobility.  -Still played a key role in local affairs - they dominated zemstva and kept control of the peasantry through their role as land captains introduced in 1889.

POLITICAL AUTHORITY IN ACTION: TREATMENT OF ETHNIC MINORITIES AND JEWS   The National minorities  Minorities in 1855: -The Russians formed half of the population, minorities the other half. -There was a strong belief that Russia was superior and their beliefs, customs and way of life should be imposed elsewhere. This led to the phenomenon; Russification.  Russification: -Encouraged by Pobedonostev who wanted to see the Orthodox church at the centre of this process.  -Orthodox churches were built all over the Empire. - 100,000 muslims became christians.  -Forced conversion caused hostility amongst the national minorities.  -Nationalities had to adopt the Russian language, customs and religion. Began under AII, favoured by AIII and continued under NII. -The Russian language was used in schools, courts and regional government.  -Russian officials were brought in to run regional governments, take important jobs in government and industry.  -National minorities HAD TO pay large sums to the imperial treasury.  Reaction to russification: -The government underestimated the hostility of  minorities and there was a series of revolts in the 19th century from minority groups demanding autonomy.  -Many turned to revolutionism.  Poland: -The Polish revolt of 1863; proved that individual leaders could ignite wide scale liberation movements.  -The Polish language was forbidden in schools.  -National bank closed 1885. -Russians replaced Poles as executive and engineers on the railway system; railway announcements were delivered in Russian.  -SUCCESS: The Poles became more reliant upon Russia Ukraine: -Ukraine was the second largest ethnic group in the Empire. It produced a lot of Russia's grain export. -Ukraine was more tolerant, loyal and integrated.  -The Tsar issued a decree to prohibit the publication of books in Ukrainian and in theatres.  -SUCCESS: Litte reluctance. Finland: -Diet parliament reorganised in 1892 to weaken it's influence.  -Finland was kept in the Empire under strict control.  Jews: -Roughly formed 5 million in the 1880s. -There were forced to settle on Eastern borders of Poland, Ukraine and Russia. -Under AII, Jews could settle in other parts of the Empire. Their rights were restricted after the Polish revolt.  -AIII and Pobedonostev released a wave of anti-semitism after Jewish involvement in 1870s revolutionism.  -They supported pogroms and attacks of them.  Alexander III's treatment of the Jews: -Couldn't own property.  -Could not hold government office. -Denied the vote in elections. -May laws of 1882, life was made harder for the Jewish people.  -There were a number of pogroms in the 1880s. Armed groups terrorised the Jews' homes. Raping, murders, attacks were rife and these pogroms were particularly ruthless after 1905.  -Many Jews emigrated/joined revolutionary groups.  -1887: Number of Jews attending education is regulated by a quota system. -In 1897, Jews formed their own union which played a role in the development of the social democratic movement. Jews often held huge positions in opposition groups (Trotsky)

THE POLITICAL AUTHORITY AND ATTEMPTS AT REFORM; IMPACT OF THE CRIMEAN WAR EMANCIPATION AND ATTEMPTS AT DOMESTIC AND MILITARY REFORM   Crimean War: Reasons why Russia lost: -Officers in the army were dominated by poorly educated noblemen.  -Lack of railways and infrastructure meant it was difficult to supply men on the front. -Government came close to bankruptcy.  -There was peasant discontent (rumours that fighting peasants would be freed moved the focus to internal matters) -Russian army was less advanced (they used wooden ships and inferior weapons) -Conscripted army ALEXANDER II REFORMS: Emancipation Edict: -44 million peasants were freed, private (1861), public (1866). -Peasants could now: own land, leave the mir with a passport, and farm for their own profit.  HOWEVER: -Ex-serfs had to pay for their lands (ex-serfs received the worst 1/3 of land (landowners received the rest)). -Peasants left with redemption payments of 49years.  -Mir became new land owner.  Developments: -Annual division of land led to smaller and smaller plots. -Their inefficient farming led to shortages. -Many peasants abandoned farming (too poor to meet the redemption payments) -Emergence of a kulak class. Local government reforms, 1864: -Zemstva introduced. They had general responsibilities (developing infrastructure, health, local affairs etc.  Positives: -The Zemstva improved its respective local area. -The nobles running the councils gained political experience. Threatening to the Tsar: -Many members began to demand social reform and this lead to increased hostility toward the state. -The peasants had little involvement and resented paying tax to the zemstvo.  -the zemstva somewhat developed a disruptive relationship with central government Not threatening to the Tsar: -Zemstva were introduced to a FEW provinces: only 37/70 by 1914. -They were dominated by the nobility. Judicial reforms, 1864/1865: Problems with the existing system: -Judges were incompetent and susceptible to bribes. -Cases took years. -Certain groups were unquestioningly favoured over others (nobles/peasants, men/women) The reforms: -It was simplified with fewer courts. -Judges better paid and could not be removed from office.  -Criminal courts open to the public and proceedings were reported. -Greater access to justice (role of the JPs) -Jury trials introduced. Threatening to the Tsar: -Judges could not be removed if they delivered a decision that displeased the government  -Public access to current cases led to greater freedom. -During the 1860s and 1870s, an articulate and educated class of legal professionals emerged. Many would advocate reform/revolution. -The reforms led to an independent source of authority separate from government.  -The courtroom encouraged debate and challenges. - The case of Vera Zasulich 1878 - acquitted when the government would have made her guilty.  -Introduced the notion rule of law. Not threatening to the Tsar: -The separate courts for peasants meant they were outside the judicial system. -Church officials should not be tried in the system.  -Trial by jury not always guaranteed. (Bureaucracy could still intervene) -Courts had greatest influence in major cities otherwise it was limited. Military reforms, 1861-1891: -Undertaken by Dmitri Milyutin: -Universal conscription introduced for all post 21. -Length of military service reduced and more time spent in the reserve.  -More autonomy given to district commanders. -Officer training improved. (specialised officer schools etc) -More modern tech introduced. -Punishments relaxed. Strengths of reforms: -​​Broke down class privilege. -Significant reduction in government expenditure.   Weaknesses of reforms: -High proportion of nobility as army officers. -AIII reduced officer training to nobility. -Nobility and merchants opposed these reforms.  -The army still relied upon peasants conscripts who were uneducated.  Education reforms, 1863-1864: -The Zemstva resumed responsibility of education in some areas. More professional teachers employed. Quality of teaching rose. Effects: -In the first decade of AII's reign, the number of pupils doubled. -Secondary schools opened to all classes and numbers doubled in the 1860s. Curriculum extended. -Higher education - universities could govern themselves. Women could attend but not take degrees. Students came from wider social groups. Enlightened professors were appointed (Nicholai Pirogue). Threatening to the Tsar: -More literate peasants. -Higher education fostered independent thought and critique of the regime.  -Poorer students formed mutual-aid groups which acted against poor teaching etc. They discusses radical ideas and joined revolutionary groups.  Censorship reforms, 1860s: -Newspapers, periodicals etc no longer had to submit to prior censorship.  -Newspaper could discuss government policy. -Editors given more freedom.  -HOWEVER: The minister of interior could withdraw any publications/close down any periodicals.  Effects: -Some reported on court cases, social problems, etc.  -Not entirely dangerous to the government but did permit the free-flow of opinion which led to increased questioning about the regime.   

THE REACTIONARY TSAR POST 1866 AND THE REFORMS OF HIS SON ALEXANDER III -Post 1866: New appointments: -Shuvalov. Head of the Third Section. He: -made sure conservatives gained posts. -tightened censorship and closed some periodicals.  -tighter control of students and their organisations. -Tolstoy. Minister of Education. He: -Inspectors appointed teachers. Many liberties removed from the zemstva. -Classical subjects favoured over modern subjects.  -Entry to university restricted and favours those who were educated in the more traditional style.  -Discipline was handled by the police.  -Pahlen. Minister of justice 1871. He: -Held show trials such as 'Trial of the 50' and the 'Trial of the 193'. These were to make an example of the punishments leveraged over revolutionary activity.  -Governor General Position. 1879, after the second attempt on his life. He: -Could suspend zemstva activity.  -Melikov. Minister for internal affairs. 1880. He: -Released political prisoners.  -Lifted Zemstva restrictions.  -Abolished the third section (although the Okhrana was put in its place).  -Suggested reforms that were demanded by the zemstva. They became known as his constitution. On a way to a meeting to discuss these reforms, the Tsar was killed. 1881. HOWEVER, some progressive reforms still continued: local government reforms and military reforms (only those that inspired revolutionary thinking were restricted. Women could go to university from 1872. Repression: -Ukrainian language prohibited in publications. 1876.   Reforms of Alexander III: Emergency measures: Statute of state security: -Prohibited the gatherings of more than 12 people.  -Any individuals could be prosecuted for political crimes.  -Emergency police rule was introduced when public order was threatened.  -Special courts existed outside of the legal system.  -It closed many schools newspapers and universities.  Counter reforms: Control: -Okhrana established 1881.  -1882 decree allowed for police to put surveillance on any citizen. -Tolstoy declared that any government-appointed official may have control over the peasants and the communes. This was deeply resented by the peasantry.  -Censorship tightened. Publications could be banned.  Education: -1884, university of statute brought in controls on universities. Staff appointed by minister of education.  -Women could no longer attend universities. -Church had control over primary education.  -Fees introduced in secondary schools excluded lower ranking students.  Local government: -1890 zemstva act reduced its power. Put under the Ministry of Interior. Their decisions could be vetoed. (That said, the zemstva remained an important part of society and would help alleviate the effects of the 1891-92 famine.  -1892 municipal government act. Voting reduced so that only 0.7% of the population in cities was eligible.  Legal: -Crimes against state not necessarily heard by a jury.  -Trials could be ordered to be held in private.  -Majority of judges appointed directly from the Ministry of Justice.  -JPs abolished and their power passed to the Land Captains.  Repression: -Undercover agents for Okhrana. Many arrested and exiled because of this activity.  Progressive reforms: -Economic development. Alexander supported the work of Bunge, Vshnegradsky, Witte. This encouraged the industrial spurt of the 1890s. 

Government and Tsars: Alexander II and Alexander III as rulers; attitudes to and imposition of autocracy; key developments. The Tsarist state: -The Tsar was at the centre of government. But there were weaknesses in his government: -Ministers and departments conflicted and there was a lack of consultation. This led to an inefficient government.  -Ministries were in constant competition for control, resources and the Tsar's attention. -Incompetence.  -There was a tendency to hire those less capable so as not to risk manoeuvring amongst the bureaucracy. Alexander III: -1881. 'Manifesto of Unshakable Autocracy'. Influenced  Pobedonostev. He denounced the previous liberal rule of his father and suggested this was the reason for his death. He praised autocracy. -He hired Pobedonostev who had great political influence, and denounced the suggestions of Melikov as overly 'Western'. 

Opposition: ideas and ideologies; individuals; liberals and radical groups and the Tsarist reaction.  Opposition in the 1870s: -Opposition in the 1870s took form through the Narodniks. They were populists based on the idea that the peasantry would head an agrarian revolution. They were enraged by the injustices seen after emancipation.  Not a threat to the Tsar: -The used the method of 'going to people'. They dressed like peasants and tried to appeal to them. -Peasants were illiterate and could not access their propaganda. -Peasants were deeply religious and their attempts as an attack against the God appointed Tsar. -They did not understand their methods of dressing as them. They were conditioned to a stratified society and respected men in uniform.  -They did not understand the feminist message exuded by groups such as the nihilists.  -They were swiftly reported to the authorities and publicly made an example of in show trials. -They were not killed; either given short sentences or forced to endure exile - this proves they were not threatening. -HOWEVER: some peasants (particularly those from younger generations) could access this.  Opposition in the 1880s: -Opposition had failed in the 1870s and sparked very little revolutionary thought. It was reevaluated in the 1880s and took a very different approach. It favoured the workers rather than the conservative, patriarchal peasants. They could not avoid capitalism, so found a method of exploiting its expansion to fit their own agenda. Not a threat to the Tsar: -Land and liberty was forced to split in 1879 when it could not agree on tactics. -Black partition became its peaceful division. This was led by Plekhanov. -The People's will used terrorist tactics. They had several assassination attempts against Alexander II and were finally successful in 1881. -Land and liberty was infiltrated, as were the narodniks.  Threat the the Tsar: -New systems of local, open governments meant that their cases could be seen. Vera Zasulich 1879 set a precedent.  -Opposition efforts turned from the peasantry to igniting the workers. -Land and liberty was formed, with much better organisation and who operated in secret.  -Tchaikovsky's circle shared banned education books and found the first workers union. -Black repartition spread propaganda against the government and translated marxist work into Russian.   

The economy 1855-1894 Economic output: Successes: -More internal innovation and exploitation of natural resources. -Baku was once a fishing village and became the fastest growing oil industry - made up 90% or Russia's oil output.  -Donets coal expanded and aided russia's railway expansion. -Major cities became textile producers and Russia was the fifth largest textile producer globally. Failures: -Not a nationwide transformation.  -Production in North East was stagnant.  -Grain export was mainstay of the economy - though its revenue flowed from the empire to line the pockets of aristocrats rather than develop it further. -Grain production only matched the rise in population, any surplus was exported - led to great famine of 1892. Railway transformation and the Internal market: Successes:  -Rapid acceleration in the 1870s- extended to Ukraine and Central Asia. -This created spin off industries (coal expansion and increased exports) -Internal market developed (subsidies given to entrepreneurs to develop railways privately. -End of free trade policies in 1877 - high tariffs to boost home production and help the iron industry of southern Russia. Failures: -Russia was behind Britain who had significantly more rail track and was more industrialised.  Methods used: Failures: -Little technological innovation (so much was imported from the West). Factories were inefficient (couldn't produced sufficient weapons, goods didn't match the standard of Europe.  -Problems with tech in heavy industry - Timber supplies in the Urals.  -Poor machinery agriculture rendered it largely ineffective.  -Absence of workforce (gov did not systematically organise a workforce after emancipation) Developing modernisation: -1850s: Early growth. Railways expanding - stimulated by Crimean defeat. -1860s: Free trade policies helped expansion. Influx of raw materials and machinery.  -1870s: Growth disrupted by general European problems. 1877: End of liberal tariffs (1891 monster tariff) -1890s: Great spurt, 8% p.a associated with Witte. Factors that hindered modernisation: -Geographical: Huge differentiations of soil fertility across Russia.  -Scattered minimal resources.  -Lack of railway. Lack of communication. -Huge variations of climate/weather, led to inefficiencies in food production. Led to famine.  -Social/cultural: -Language variations hindered communications.  -Lack of middle class (entrepreneurs)  -Anti-capitalist feeling of Russia.  Factors that aided modernisation: -Foreign concerns: -Loss in the crimean war brings motivation to regain power-status. Illustrates backwardness.  Economic: -Rich in natural resources. (huge potential underground). Witte's policies: 1892-1903 -State sponsored development of heavy industry. He saw railways at the heart of industrial development and believed they would form the basis of reform. By the end of 1890s, 60% of iron and steel was consumed by the railways. Expansion marked in the Trans-Siberian railway. During the 1890s, rail track almost doubled. This was dependent on the state, who by 1899, controlled 70% of the railways. Witte believed this level of state sponsorship was the best way to kick-start industrialisation  -Foreign loans, investment and expertise  Witte relied on huge loans - from France etc By 1900, one third of Russian joint-stock companies capital was from foreign investors. -High tariffs on foreign industrial goods -Companies in Russia bought home-produced Iron.  -Strong rouble, adoption of the gold standard -1897 Russia adopted gold standard - added security for foreign investors.  -Raised taxation -Mostly affected the peasants. Workers' wages kept low.  Successes of Witte's policies -1890s - growth rate hit 9%. -Coal output tripled. -Rapid growth in Caucasses and Donbass region.  Failures: -In 1899 a recession started. Expansion slowed: Closure of mines, small firms and factories.  -Russo-Japanese war and 1905 revolution kept progress slow.  -By 1900, 20% of the budget was used to pay off foreign debt, 10x what was spent on education.  -Witte neglected agriculture.  -Lack of development in consumer products.     

Political authority, government and Tsar; Nicholas II as ruler: political developments to 1914; 1905 Revolution; Duma government Politics pre-1905 -Nicholas said that he would protect the autocracy and would not pass any constitution in Russia.  1905 revolution  Causes:  The failure in the Russo-Japanese war.  -Increasing unrest in 1904 (assassination of Plehve) POLITICAL -The national zemstvo congress of November - 5000 telegrams poured in calling for change.  -Union of liberation organised several political meetings to discuss how to ensue reform.  -Increasingly hostile press to the government.  ECONOMIC -trade with the east along the trans-siberian railway was disrupted by military priorities. -shortages of raw materials affected industries.  -unemployment rising and factories closing.  BLOODY SUNDAY -a peaceful protest begun in the Pulitov strike. other factories went out on strike. Father Gapon organised a petition and marched the winter palace to seek the help of the Tsar and call for better working conditions. Thousands marched but calvary opened fire.  EFFECTS OF BLOODY SUNDAY: - DURING 1905 3600 GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS WERE CALLED  -the main effect was it altered the demands of the people from economic to political. By the end of January, over 400,000 were out on strike.  -Workers formed factory committees -Professional organisations and liberals formed the union of unions.  -Hundreds of petitions passed demanding change. -Increasing military failures in Japanese territory exacerbated tensions. REACTION OF THE PEASANTRY -1905: reaction to revolution. June-July- landlord houses were built. Refusal to pay rent/taxes.  -This lead to peasant unions and societies. In July, the all Peasant Union met near Moscow.  REACTION OF THE NATIONALITIES -The nationalities took advantage of the government in disarray. Poland and Finland demanded outright independence with slogans such as 'down with Tsarism' REACTION OF THE ARMED FORCES -mutiny of the battleship potemkin. The sailors rebelled over harsh conditions. It surrendered after limited support but served as an important wake up call for the Tsar, who afterwards called on Witte to form a peace treaty with Japan.  TENSION IN SEPTEMBER: -General strike called -interrupted railway system. Up to 2million supported the strike (even government officials). Explosion of criminality. Supported by middle classes. -St Petersbury soviet formed 13 October. It co-ordinated strikers and Trotsky delivered fiery speeches.  OCTOBER MANIFESTO: -Tsar Nicholas II was reluctantly convinced to pass the october manifesto. It conceded: -civil liberties (freedom of speech, end of censorship and unwarranted arrest) -an elected Duma (parliament). Its effects: end of the general strike and a period of celebration, it had encouraged the liberals and isolated the radicals.  Formation of the kadets and the octobrists.  However: At the end of October there was a period of political instability and violent attacks between the left and right parties. This affected the Jews and over 3000 were killed in the last two weeks of October. THE RESTORATION OF ORDER: The new minister of interior was determined to regain control with the worrying increase of militancy in society. The Okhrana and the police arrested hundreds. Restoration of order in the countryside took longer. As many as 15,000 peasants were executed - 'Stolypin's necktie'.  WHY WAS THE TSAR ABLE TO RESTORE AUTHORITY AFTER THE 1905 REVOLUTION: -despite some mutinies, the army remained loyal after he introduction of reforms they had longed called for -The abrupt end to the japanese war -the use of repression and force to suppress those rebelling.  -The different groups opposing the Tsar were not in unison.  -The october manifesto split the liberals and socialists. -The influential middle classes fears the militancy of the lower classes, increased allegiance to the Tsar who was able to quell them. -The revolutionary parties were not ready for the 05 revolution and played little part.  -Witte secured the very influential French loan which stabilised the economy and helped stabilise the government.  The significance of 1905: -Tsar as secure: -A loyal army kept his authority in tact (this would change in 1917) -revolutionary parties had played a relatively small part-it gave a loyal middle class more political influence -Tsar as not secure: -It broke the relationship between Tsar and his people. -Workers more likely to revolt. -after 'stolypin's necktie' the peasantry were resentful -Lenin considered the 1905 revolution as a 'dress rehearsal'. He learnt that the bourgeoise as a liberal combat to the regime were weak, the peasantry had revolutionary potential, and national minorities in defiance were dangerous for the regime [This led him to believe that the vanguard of the proletariat and the nationalities could seize power, and a democratic revolution of a gradual pace was not necessary.] The constitutional experiment: -The Fundamental laws and Article 87 were both issued after the October manifesto and gave ultimate power to the Tsar to control legislation.  -The 'state council' was established by the Tsar (and he elected its members) alongside the Duma and each body would have to agree before it went to the Tsar for approval.  -The Tsar kept control of the military and foreign policy and ministers.  -The liberals were displeased with the voting system, which consisted of a convoluted system of electoral colleges designed to favour the upper classes.   The fallout: -Many people turned up to vote. The First and second Duma were unsuccessful. They were mainly comprised of liberal and leftist parties. (Cadets and Trudoviks). 1st: Air of hostility. They demanded that elections be fair and secret. A two month disagreement discussing civil rights, censorship etc led to the dissolution of the Duma. Many went in to exile where they produced the 'Vyborg manifesto. This led to their arrest and exile. 2nd: 'The Duma of national anger'. Mainly occupied by the Trudoviks. It was more radical and it was closed within a few months under the pretext of a 'discovered plot'. STOLYPIN'S COUP -Stolypin's coup changed the voting system. Peasants, workers and national minorities were virtually excluded. This led to a very different result in the election, and the Duma was dominated by the Octobrists and the rightists (much more conservative and allegiant to the Tsar). 3rd: The right wing Duma's tried to weaken Stolypin's agrarian reforms. However, it passed some reformist policies: -Education law of 1908 laid the foundations for universal education. The number of primary schools and the literacy rate grew greatly by 1914. -Health sickness insurance to benefit unwell workers. -The restarting of the justices of peace rather than the hated land captains.  4th: This Duma was interrupted by the war but sought to continue the reforms thus far achieved by the 3rd Duma. It began talks of: -the reduction of state control. -talks to reduce the consumption of vodka, but this was ignored as it brought the state too much revenue.  HOWEVER, it was not wholly praising of the government. It critiqued the governments handling of the Lena Goldfields massacre.  -in 1911, the Tsar suspended the Duma to pass Stolypin's wish of extending the Zemstva to the western provinces.  -In 1915, a Progressive Bloc was formed. It offered the Tsar a chance to work with the people but he did not pass it and instead suspended the Duma.  -After Stolypin's assassination in 1911, very conservative ministers were appointed and the Duma became an extension of the Tsar - increasingly isolated and increasingly dependent on rightist support. The earlier, more liberal dumas could not agree and thus degenerated into quarrels and disillusionment.  

Economic developments to 1914: industrial and agricultural growth and change Witte's policies: 1892-1903 -State sponsored development of heavy industry. He saw railways at the heart of industrial development and believed they would form the basis of reform. By the end of 1890s, 60% of iron and steel was consumed by the railways. Expansion marked in the Trans-Siberian railway. During the 1890s, rail track almost doubled. This was dependent on the state, who by 1899, controlled 70% of the railways. Witte believed this level of state sponsorship was the best way to kick-start industrialisation  -Foreign loans, investment and expertise  Witte relied on huge loans - from France etc By 1900, one third of Russian joint-stock companies capital was from foreign investors. -High tariffs on foreign industrial goods -Companies in Russia bought home-produced Iron.  -Strong rouble, adoption of the gold standard -1897 Russia adopted gold standard - added security for foreign investors.  -Raised taxation -Mostly affected the peasants. Workers' wages kept low.  Successes of Witte's policies -1890s - growth rate hit 9%. -Coal output tripled. -Rapid growth in Caucasses and Donbass region.  Failures: -In 1899 a recession started. Expansion slowed: Closure of mines, small firms and factories.  -Russo-Japanese war and 1905 revolution kept progress slow.  -By 1900, 20% of the budget was used to pay off foreign debt, 10x what was spent on education.  -Witte neglected agriculture.  -Lack of development in consumer products.    AGRICULTURE: Successes: -Between 1877-1905 the amount of land owned by the peasantry grew from 6m hectares to 21.6m hectares. -Grain production grew by 2.1% annually between 1883 and 1912. -In parts of the Baltic, landowners with access to Western grain markets had established capitalist farms worked by wage labourers. -There was an upward trend in food supply and consumption across the empire (despite 92&05-06 years). Failures: -Backward methods used by conservative communes. -Population increased led to a lack of efficiency after land repartition. Stolypin's reforms -His reforms from 1906 to 1911 aimed to: help the prosperity of peasants. separate the peasants from their communes. redistribute the land of nobles. consolidate the strips of land. -By 1914, only 10% of households were consolidated.  -By 1914 Russia was the largest cereal exporter in the world. -Investment in agricultural machinery rose at an annual rate of 9% 1891-1913.  -By 1914, peasant households were still organised in rural communes, with traditional and inefficient methods of farming. -The strip system, wooden ploughs and lack of capita were all problems still in vast circulation. There were improvements in overall production, though large areas remained unmodernised. 

-Opposition: ideas and ideologies, liberalism, socialism; Marxism; individuals and radical groups Three main opposition groups: Liberals, SRs, SDs. Liberals: -intelligentsia, middle classes. worked at the interface with peasants and workers. wanted to improve social conditions.  -They saw reform at the heart of change rather than methods of violence.  -In 1903, the union of liberation was formed demanding political and economic reform.  SRs: -poor organisation & lack of central control.  -First congress held in 1906. -Used methods of violence - murdered government officials.  -they hoped peasants would run the revolution. Workers formed 50% of membership. SDs: -Formed in 1898 by Plekhanov. -National newspaper Iskra.  -The party was not unified. Varying tactics led to disputes. At the Second Party Congress in 1903, the party split into the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.  -The Bolsheviks (Lenin) believed that the revolutionary party should be made up of a few highly educated professionals, should be operated under central leadership and lead the workers through the revolution. -The Mensheviks believed that the party should welcome anyone wishing to join. It should be democratic. Work with trade unions. They did not believe in a forced takeover revolution. 

Political authority, opposition and the state of Russia in wartime: the political, economic and social problems of wartime; opposition and the collapse of autocracy; the political developments of 1917 Russia on the eve of war: Problems: -Revival of militancy amongst the workers after poor government handling of incidents such as the Lena Goldfields massacre. Political and economic focussed strikes. General strike in 1914. -Support for the Bolsheviks had increased. They were managing some of the largest unions in the cities - such as the Metalworkers union.  -The weaknesses in the government - the bureaucracy was inefficient.  -increasing resentment of peasants still living in poverty -the demands of the workers had not been met -the tsar and his loyal supporters were against reform -the war exposed all these structural and institutional weaknesses.  Successes: -The Dumas (and the successes of the 3rd Duma) proved that Russia could open up to political reform -Agricultural improvement and industrial growth -Countryside relatively quiet before 1914, good harvests. Workers action was MAINLY economically focussed.  Problems caused by the War:  Military problems - Lack of equipment, poor administration, poor distribution of supplies. Shortages of ammunition, soldier’s boots. War hospitals were a great distance from frontline. Battle of Tannenberg – 10k/150k survived – deficiencies in army. Ill-equipped, underfed army were losing faith in their leader. No clear command structure.  Social problems -  Requisitioning of fertilisers for war effort made it hard to sustain agr output (in 1916 grain yield fell). Civilians suffered – army had first claim on new food / priority of transport. Famine – Petrograd suffered (remoteness from food production) – 1917 ppl receiving ¼ of bread available to them in 1914. Disruption of transport system – blocked lines, engine breakdown, lack of coal. Food on trains began to rot. 1916 major cities saw 1/3 of requirements.  Economic problems - government spending has risen from 4m to 30m. increased taxation and heavy borrowing from abroad. The gold standard was abandoned – inflation as money became worthless. Price of food quadrupled between 1914 and 1916.  Political problems - 1915 – Tsar takes control of the army, liable to the people. Tsarina in charge – Rasputin thought to have influenced her (already criticised for German heritage). From 1915-17, there were 22 changes to ministry positions in gov – caused much instability. Tsar refused to work with the Duma, Zemgor (& other groups offering their help during war effort. This refusal led to an increased negative attitude.  Government action -The zemstva and municipalities started forming their own bodies to provide care and food. War Industry Comittess were formed by professionals and businessmen to oversee the conversion of workers factories to arms productions.  -The Tsarina (and rasputin) regarded these bodies with suspicion and refused to co-operate.  -In 1915 the 'Progressive Bloc' was formed by Dumas that would act as a body to co-ordinate Russia during wartime. This offered the Tsar a chance to be seen as working with the people but he refused and dissolved the Duma. the Kadet leader afterwards declared that the Duma would fight the government.  -The Tsar was away from Petrograd. Tsarina left in charge - ministerial leapfrog. Competent people dismissed (such as Polivanov) as he was willing to work with the new war bodies. She appointed Sturmer as Prime Minister in Feb: German name.  -All classes were disillusioned with how the government was running the war effort. Many nobles joined the 'Progressive Bloc'.  February revolution - Bread announced as being rationed. Food queues obscene.  -On international women day, women took the streets. Celebration quickly became a protest, and they encouraged workers to join them on the streets of Petrograd.  -Their demands became politically focussed. But - there was no central organisation for events. Revolutionary leaders were either abroad or in exile. Nonetheless, Bolsheviks were active in getting workers out on the streets.  -The tsar sent troops to quell the protest but many soldiers joined the people. The President of the Duma recommended to the tsar that a new government be formed. The Tsar refused and attempted to make it back to the capital. This was his last call as Tsar.  -the Duma formed a special war committee made up of representatives from the main political parties. The Russian Army High Command sided with it and stopped the advancements of troops to Petrograd.  Death toll: 1500.  

Political authority, opposition and government: the Bolshevik takeover and the establishment of Bolshevik government by December 1917; opposition    'Dual power' - The duma created a new government. The 'Provisional government'. It was supposed to run Russia until a constituent assembly could be arranged, headed by Prince Lvov. At the same time, the workers and intellectuals were gathering and red the 'Petrograd Soviet'. It rapidly grew in membership . Alexander Kerensky was the bridge between these two groups, taking up roles in either. -The real power lay with the PS - it controlled infrastructure and the factories and the soldiers in Petrograd. The PS gave its power to the PG however because they did not want to spark a counter-revolution and recognised their incapability of running a government.  'The honeymoon' of the revolution -Secret police, death penalty abolished. Freedom of the Press and universal suffrage.  -Workers secured and 8 hour day. -In the PG's early days, Russia was peaceful and controlled internally.  -Outside the capital, people were establishing their own organisations and many villages became self-autonomous.  The issue of the war The main issue that challenged the 'honeymoon' phase was the war.  -The Kadets & other liberals wanted to continue with the war effort to avoid humiliation, loss of territory and a loss of Western support for economic reconstruction.  -The socialists wanted the negotiated peace.  -amongst this deliberation and uncertainty, war continued, though this was very unpopular with society.  July offensive -The PG launched an offensive against Germany. Propaganda campaigns were preparing people for a full scale military success. -The attack lasted a few days and led to dramatic loss of Russian lives and further loss of territory.  -Many soldiers joined the Bolsheviks and this led to an armed uprising in Petrograd. The land and the peasants -Peasants saw the crumbling of autocracy as a means to regain land. They wanted government approval. -The gov did not want to see property simply taken away peasants soldiers returning from the front to acquire new land  -The PG blocked their proposals and this led to a period of violent land seizures (237 cases reported in July alone). The PG mishandled relations with the peasants and thus they refused to send their grain. The PG sent the army to coerce them and this worsened their relationship further.  Minorities -The Kadets determined to maintain the Empire. The socialists believed non-russians should have increased self governance. The socialists made concessions to the Ukrainians demanding independence.  Russian society -Russian society was expecting reform. Economic problems were deteriorating further, factories were closing everyday, food supply was an issue and prices were exponentially rising.  WEAKNESSES OF THE PG: -Temporary. Shared power. Divisions between socialists and liberals.  -Lacked popular support because its policies and actions antagonised the peasants and workers.  -It failed to end the war, give peasants land, handle the lack of food, refused to give autonomy to national minorities.  MISTAKES BY KERENSKY: -Kornilov affair, launched failed offensive. Gave the Bolsheviks the excuse to say he was working against the revolution.  Kerensky&Lenin -Kerensky was considered as the 'human bridge' between the socialists and liberals. -Lenin returned from exile in April. He addressed the people. He spoke of what became his 'April Thesus'. He called for: end to the war, power to the soviets, land redistribution to the peasants. -Initially, it was no popular politically. Some of the Bolshevik Central Committee said it was against Marxist theory. However, the policy of power to the soviets, peace, land appealed directly to the workers, soldiers and peasants. The left SRs supported the Bolsheviks.  -Lenin believed the bourgeoisie were too weak to carry revolution. The proletariat had already taken power in the soviets, like the Petrograd soviet.  Bolshevik role in the July Days   The failed summer offensive saw the deaths of hundreds of thousands. -Sailors from the Kronstadt naval base marched to Petrograd and demanded the Soviet take power.  -There was a lack of clear leadership and the uprising failed.  -Lenin was forced into hiding, and Trotsky arrested after Lenin was accused of colluding with the Germans by the PG. Bolshevik newspapers were closed. -The PG began to disintegrate, ministers resigned and Lvov resigned.  -Kerensky became prime minister. Middle class support was fleeing as workers were not being controlled.  By the end of August, the PG were facing serious problems: -The army was disintegrating. Price of food still rising. Countryside lawlessness and city lawlessness.  The Kornilov affair  -Kerensky appointed a new supreme commander of the Russian forces. Kornilov was called upon to bring troops to Petrograd. But, Kornilov started moving his forces towards Petrograd to establish military control.  -The Bolsheviks came to the city's aid. Bolshevik soldiers came out to the streets. His troops did not arrive however, stopped by the railway workers. Bolshevik agents persuaded troops to desert their officers. Kornilov was arrested.  The consequences of the affair: -Ruined Kerensky's reputation -Menshevik & SRs leaders discredited because of their association with Kerensky.  -Troops could be disloyal and fell out of favour with Kerensky -The Bolsheviks were seen as the saviours of the revolution.  Worker radicalisation -Strikes were frequent and militant. Food short, inflation, wages.  -The Bolsheviks were the only party to offer them the idea of change. Support flowed to them.  -The Bolsheviks were elected in huge numbers onto soviets. They gained control of the Petrograd Soviet and Moscow Soviet. Trotsky was its president.  -Membership leaped over the summer. 10,000 to 250,000. Peasants -They were not waiting for the PG any longer. There was a surge of support for the left SRs and Bolsheviks.  BOLSHEVIK STRENGHTS: -Lenin's leadership.  -Better organised.  -In tune with the aspirations of both the peasants and the workers.  -Trotsky's organisation: control of the MRC.  -Greatest number of active supporter (Kronstadt) FACTORS FAVOURING BOLSHEVIKS -weak army -economic crisis was acute by October, people were hungry and desperate.  The October revolution -Lenin wanted to seize power now: The Bolsheviks were in control of the Soviet, their popularity was at an all time high. The PG was extremely unpopular. -The Bolshevik Central Committee thought his plans were premature and did not want to take action. Lenin secretly returned to Petrograd.  -Kerensky tried to send units to the capital. The Bolsheviks persuaded the Soviet to set up a Military Revolutionary Committee. It had direct control of the soldiers in the capital.  -Kerensky tried to close down two Bolshevik newspapers and restrict the power of the MRC. This gave Bolsheviks leverage to say Kerensky was undermining the revolution.  -The Bolshevik guards were sent out to retrieve key points of the city and arrested what remained of the government in the Winter Palace.    

Political authority and government: new leaders and ideologies; Lenin's Russia, ideology and change; Stalin's rise, ideology and change Marxist ideology: -Proletariat rise up and seize power. -Workers control the state. 'All power to the Soviets.' -Power sharing -Democratic centralism -Dictatorship of the proletariat is necessary for a while.  -Right of self-determination. -Nationalisation of industry. -Class system ended. Goods are shared fairly. -Revolution would spread to other countries.   Lenin's ideology:  -Lenin believed in Marxist theory. However, he made three main changes: -The revolution must be accomplished by a smaller group of professionals. They would instil revolutionary attitudes and radicalise the workers.  -He believed that revolution and socialism would begin in a weak country and spread to more capitalist powers. -He did not think the middle classes were strong enough to lead a bourgeoisie-democratic revolution. He believed they also need the proletariat . Ways in which Lenin betrayed this ideology: -1921 ban on factions.  -1922 constitution.  -Party officials allowed access to better goods (housing etc).  -The Politburo was exclusive and not power sharing.  -The workers saw the state as manipulating workers unions and betraying 'all power to the Soviets'. -The NEP    Stalin's rise Factors against Trotsky: -Unspecific to Trotsky, there was general uncertainty about the next leader. Lenin had not left in place an appropriate method to chose another. -Trotsky did not have a wide support base within the party.  -Some disliked his Menshevik past -He had fallen out with other rivals such as Stalin.  -The burial of Lenin's testimony (which promoted Trotsky and denounced Stalin). The timeline of Stalin's takeover (key events) -His role as general secretary from 1922.  -The burial of Lenin's testament. -Trotsky losing his power base and position as commissar of war. -The 'Duumvirate' (formed by Bukharin and Stalin) defeats the New Opposition at the 14th Party Congress. -Stalin eventually knocks out Bukharin. Stalin's strengths: -Failure of NEP -The Lenin enrolment takes place under Stalin, those recruited owe Stalin their loyalty.  -The division between the left and right - Stalin is at the centre.  -The grey blur is building his power base.  -Stalin forms the 'Troika' with Zinoviev and Kamenev. They openly criticise Trotsky but Stalin takes the backseat and appears somewhat impartial.  -Stalin reads the oration at Lenin's funeral - appearing as the natural successor.  -Stalin moves to the right of the party and Trotsky to the left - T wants to abandon NEP and tax the peasants heavily. The NEP is functioning well and thus this policy is unpopular.  -Kamenev and Zinoviev form an opposition group to Stalin. They appear indecisive.  -Zinoviev and Kamenev removed from their respective positions. Trotsky is expelled from the Politburo - 1926. The following year they are all expelled from the Party for breaching 'ban on factionalism'.  -Stalin allows Z and K to rejoin the party if they publicly apologise. They appear pathetic and without influence.  -Trotsky is exiled abroad.  -Lenin's ban on factions helped Stalin.  The issue of the NEP -The left wanted to abandon the NEP, squeeze the peasants and push for industrialisation.  The right wanted to keep the peasants as the bed rock of the economy, allow them to grow wealthy and purchase consumer goods, and take industrialisation from there.  -Stalin remained neutral in this.  Permanent revolution vs socialism in one country -Trotsky did not believe that Russia was capable of seeing through the revolution. He believed it should take place by the workers in more developed, western countries, and then Russia should assume position. -Stalin believed Russia was capable of seeing through the revolution. He believed it would begin there and spread to other countries.  -Stalin appears patriotic and of faith that the Russian people can see through revolution.    -    

Political authority and government: the consolidation of Bolshevik authority and development of the Stalinist dictatorship.     The early days of Bolshevik consolidation Bolshevik action: - The Sovnarkom was established as the main instrument of government comprising exclusively of Bolsheviks.  -The Bolsheviks were receiving pressure from all of society to talk and collaborate with other parties. To survive the first few months, Lenin passed a number of decrees: -Peace called for an immediate end to the war. Land gave peasants the right to seize land from the gentry - It could no longer be bought/sold etc. Workers' control gave factory committees the power to control production and finance. The decree on the rights of the people of Russia gave the right to self-determination. This was purely a paper measure.  Dealing with opposition: -Opposition press banned. There was an abolition of titles and class distinctions. Cheka was set up in December. They turned on opposition political parties (Kadet party denounced and outlawed). Civil service purged. Constituent assembly closed once the SRs had beaten them overwhelmingly in votes.  -No contender on the left to challenge Bolshevik power. -Class warfare began and was encouraged. People now addressed one another as 'Comrade'. The legal system was abolished and replaced by 'revolutionary justice' which was arbitrary and violent in character. -The SRs attempted a second revolution in Moscow. They were defeated and arrested.  TREATY OF BREST-LITOVSK: The socialist revolution of the workers failed to materialise in other countries and thus Trotsky was sent to negotiate a peace Trotsky withdrew from the agreement.  Lenin believed peace was fundamental to the survival of the regime but the left Communists  (eg Bukharin) wanted revolution to spread throughout Europe and opposed Lenin's plans for a peace agreement with Germany.  3 March it was signed and was seen throughout Russia as 'shameful peace'; half the human, industrial and agricultural resources were lost. This led to severe grain shortages, and 27% of farm land lost. The Germans established semi-independent governments in Belarus and the Ukraine. Minorities became independent eg, Finland. The treaty had devastating consequences politically also: it encouraged patriotic Russians to join anti-Bolshevik groups ( a significant contributor to Civil War ). The Left SRs resigned from the Sovnakom in protest at the treaty.  THE CIVIL WAR 1918-1920 Reds - Bolsheviks. Gained support from peasantry who didn't want to see a restoration of the former ruling classes. Whites - Dominated by Tsarist officers. Divided; liberals, moderate sociailists etc. Unco-ordinated and divided eg, Admiral Kolchak, head of the Omsk (white) government overthrew the Komuch in a military coup in 1918.  Greens - Peasant armies. Some fought For, some fought Against the Bolsheviks (concerned with protecting their own area from the ravages of other marauding armies.  Why did the Reds win? R controlled central areas/W were scattered.  R heavily populated with industrial resources/W outnumbered and without communication links. R had single, unified comman structure led by Trotsky/W groups had no single purpose. R had Trotsky's leadership/W had high level of corruption and second-rate leaders.  R had peasants support/W lacked political programme with any appeal (if they won land would be restored to former owners). HOW THE CIVIL WAR HELPED CONSOLIDATE BOLSHEVIK POWER: -It boosted membership massively at a time set against the war. New members were militantly obedient. This military focus left it with a readiness to result to coercion and centralisation.  -The Politburo was created in 1919. Centre of party policy. The Sovnarkom met less frequently and the Politburo became the main instrument of government, which much fewer members. Greater centralisation.  .-Local soviets only consisted of party members -1921 ban on factions: any decision made by the central committee had to be accepted by the whole party. -1922 post of general secretary formed and filled by Stalin.  -1922 constitution - independence movements denounced as counter-revolutionary. Lenin abandoned 'self-determination'. States which made up the Union were kept under strict control. -1923 nomenklatura: A list of positions drawn up and the central committee assigned people accordingly. A new loyal party elite. Trustworthy appointments awarded for their loyalty (better housing). Despite the principle of 'democratic centralism', the one party state was tightened.  The problems they faced in 1921: -The peasants were in discord with Bolshevik ideology. They did not want socialism, but instead independence to farm and achieve kulak status - Tambov rebellion. Thousands of red army troops countered a peasant army. Peasants revolted when requisitioning began. Thousands died and the rebellion continued for months. -The workers were angry at the Bolsheviks undermining the promises they made: they were angry at the militarisation of factories, food shortages and the states manipulation of unions. Worker opposition was defeated easily (more so than peasants, but resentment still festered). -The economy: Transport system on the point of total collapse. Production from factories falling. Grain production very low levels. Famine was widespread. -The Kronstadt rebellion March 1921. The rebels issued an official critique of Lenin and his policies. They made a series of demands. It was squashed and many rebels were shot.  Development of the Stalinist dictatorship   Stalin's rise Factors against Trotsky: -Unspecific to Trotsky, there was general uncertainty about the next leader. Lenin had not left in place an appropriate method to chose another. -Trotsky did not have a wide support base within the party.  -Some disliked his Menshevik past -He had fallen out with other rivals such as Stalin.  -The burial of Lenin's testimony (which promoted Trotsky and denounced Stalin). The timeline of Stalin's takeover (key events) -His role as general secretary from 1922.  -The burial of Lenin's testament. -Trotsky losing his power base and position as commissar of war. -The 'Duumvirate' (formed by Bukharin and Stalin) defeats the New Opposition at the 14th Party Congress. -Stalin eventually knocks out Bukharin. Stalin's strengths: -Failure of NEP -The Lenin enrolment takes place under Stalin, those recruited owe Stalin their loyalty.  -The division between the left and right - Stalin is at the centre.  -The grey blur is building his power base.  -Stalin forms the 'Troika' with Zinoviev and Kamenev. They openly criticise Trotsky but Stalin takes the backseat and appears somewhat impartial.  -Stalin reads the oration at Lenin's funeral - appearing as the natural successor.  -Stalin moves to the right of the party and Trotsky to the left - T wants to abandon NEP and tax the peasants heavily. The NEP is functioning well and thus this policy is unpopular.  -Kamenev and Zinoviev form an opposition group to Stalin. They appear indecisive.  -Zinoviev and Kamenev removed from their respective positions. Trotsky is expelled from the Politburo - 1926. The following year they are all expelled from the Party for breaching 'ban on factionalism'.  -Stalin allows Z and K to rejoin the party if they publicly apologise. They appear pathetic and without influence.  -Trotsky is exiled abroad.  -Lenin's ban on factions helped Stalin.  The issue of the NEP -The left wanted to abandon the NEP, squeeze the peasants and push for industrialisation.  The right wanted to keep the peasants as the bed rock of the economy, allow them to grow wealthy and purchase consumer goods, and take industrialisation from there.  -Stalin remained neutral in this.  Permanent revolution vs socialism in one country -Trotsky did not believe that Russia was capable of seeing through the revolution. He believed it should take place by the workers in more developed, western countries, and then Russia should assume position. -Stalin believed Russia was capable of seeing through the revolution. He believed it would begin there and spread to other countries.  -Stalin appears patriotic and of faith that the Russian people can see through revolution.  Stalin's development of state -He replaced Politburo members with his own supporters e.g. Molotov.  -His decisions could not be outvoted.  -Left and right opposition brought to trial and many executed. -He established NKVD. He regularly changed the head of terror to keep those in power regulated.       

Economic developments: Lenin's decrees; the Stalinist economy; collectivisation and the Five Year Plans.   War communism -Lenin faced the problem of the rapid detorioration of the economy (food shortages, inflation, food riots, workers fled factories in search of food etc...). Lenin used War Communism to save the economy, feed the army and extend class warfare.  It was a comprehensive range of state controls over the economy; popular with the party as a rapid route to socialism.  Grain requisitioning; in May 1918 a Food-Supplies Dictatorship was set up. Controlled by Units of the Red Guard. Labour discipline; Fines for being late/absent. Internal passports prevented people fleeing the countryside. Nationalisation of industry; Decree on Nationalisation in June 1918 brought industry under State Control, administered by the Veshenka. Workers committees replaced by single managers (often old bourgeious members renamed as 'specialists.'  Rationing; Class based system of rationing (the smallest rations given to middle classes). Banning of private trade; But this system did not produce enough and led to the Black Market. June 1918: Decree ended all forms of private capitalism.  The NEP It replaced the suffering policy of War Communism. Its betrayal of communist ideology meant that many Bolsheviks resented it, but Bukharin backed it and after the Kronstadt revolt, they realised splits in the Party could lead to their loss of power - the NEP was agreed as a temporary measure.  Grain requisitioning abolished; Instead, peasants had to give a fixed proportion to the state but could sell any surplus on the open market. Small businesses reopened; Private ownership allowed, included small workshops that made goods like shoes, clothes etc. Lenin realised peasants would not sell produce unless they were desirable goods on sale.  State Control of the Economy; the State kept control of the large-scale industries (coal, steel, oil, banking system, transport). Industry organised into 'trusts'; had to pay their workers from own budgets, the state would not bail them out if they managed their budgets poorly.  Ban on Private Trade removed; Food/Goods could flow more easily between the countryside&towns. Rationing abolished, people bought food/goods from their own income. The money economy was back. Economic facts to represent failures: -under war communism, number of people working in factories and mines fell by 50%. -By 1920, the average worker had a productivity rate that was 44% less than the 1913 rate. -Large factories were producing 18% of the 1913 total.  -In 1922, the amount of grain taxed was half of the grain taken by force in 1920-1921. -In 1922, 500,000 were unemployed in the heavy industry sector.  -The scissors crisis of 1923. Increase in supply of grain but lack of industrial goods for peasants to buy - they held back their goods. (The gov replaced peasant quotas with money taxes forcing them to sell.  -Under the NEP, Russia did not export anymore than 3million tonnes of grain (in 1913 this was 12million).  -In 1927, over 5 mil inefficient wooden ploughs were in still in use.  -by 1928, real wages had only just passed their pre-war levels.  Successes: -New currency introduced.  -Tax limited to 10% - demonstrates some success of the NEP.  -The NEP relied on the nepmen who handled as much as 3/4 of the retail trade.  Why Stalin abandoned NEP: -peasants could hold back grain to increase prices.  -It was more appealing than importing grain, which would slow down industrial development. -Collectivisation would entail greater efficiency. Manpower could be released to industry.  Stalin's collectivisation:  -The aim of collectivisation was to increase the state's share of harvests at a lower price. It would make surplus labour workers to help with modernisation in towns. -November 1929 - 25,000 workers were sent to the countryside to begin the process of collectivisation, along with party officials and police. This process was brutal and within the first 2 months half of peasant households were collectivised.  -However, Stalin had to call a halt to the proceedings as it caused too much agricultural disruption. This pause saw the figure drop from 58% to 24%. But, once is began again, by the end of the 1930s, 90% of households were collectivised. -Grain harvests dropped dramatically from the 1930s. State procurements did not.  -It provided a labour force of fleeing peasants.  -Agriculture still remained ineffective and backward. Tractors consumed half the production of quality steel in the USSR in 1932.  -Collectivisation as a military success: the Party gained control of the peasantry. They were not threatened with the risk of peasants holding back their grain anymore.  Five year plans: -Stalin decided that investments should go into heavy industry. Consumer industries were ignored.  -The plans consisted of very specific and often unattainable targets, achieved at the detriment of quality. (Failure to meet targets could result in a criminal conviction) -They involved huge new industrial complexes (Magnitogorsk and Kuznetz). -Projects were promoted - the Dnieprostroi Dam in eastern Russian was for a few years the worlds largest construction site. It increased Sovietectric output five fold.  The First Five year plan -Heavy industry was 80% of total investment. -Electricity production trebled. Coal and iron output doubled. Steel production increased by 1/3. New tractor stations/ industry projects built. -BUT, decline in consumer industries. Chemical targets not met. -Immense targets (coal production to rise from 35 million to 75 million).  -The number of industrial workers doubled during the first five year plan . -In 1931, Stalin drew attention to the importance of specialist workers. He introduced wage differentials and inequality began to grow.  -1932 degree allowed managers to deprive bad workers of rations and housing.  -Labour turnover was very high.  The second FYP: Electricity continued to expand. -By 1937, the USSR was self-sufficient in machine making.  -Transport and communications grew rapidly. -Chemical industries growing. -signs of recovery in the consumer goods industries  -BUT, oil did not meet the expected targets. -Investment reduced.  -1934-1936 considered as the good years. Good harvests, recovery of agriculture , rationing ended in 1935.  -Stakhanovite movement was a re-animation of the Bolshevik spirit of proletariat creativity.   -After 1936, economic slowdown reappeared. Bad harvest. Kemerovo mine disaster.  -After the slowdown: the regime introduced purges and labour decrees.  -1938 labour decree: work-books to be shown. 1940 labour decree: absenteeism punishable, working week extended for no extra pay, changing jobs without authorisation punishable by imprisonment. Third FYP: -Cut short due to WW2.  -Defence and armaments rapidly grew. This was the focus.  -BUT: steel output little growth, oil production did not meet targets and led to a fuel crisis. Factories ran short of materials. Analysis of FYPs: -Generally, under Stalin, industrial output trebled and the growth rate was 10%.  -28 fold increase in the production of aircraft. -BUT, labour productivity was very low. Millions of untrained workers.  -Quantity was favoured over quality and this led to problems of inefficiency: the pig-iron and steel produced from Magnitogorsk was often rendered unusable. This problem also led to the necessity of frequent repairs. 

Social developments: effect of Leninist/Stalinist rule on class, women, young people, religion and national minorities; propaganda and cultural change   Society under Lenin: -Class hierarchy developed. People became known as 'comrade'.  -Nobility banned from working and given menial tasks.  -Rations allocated based on 'work-value' during the civil war. Professionals received bare minimum - middle class girls had to turn to prostitution.  -Class enemies were faced with tough treatment. (NEP somewhat undermined this as it claimed specialists were needed for economic growth). Stalin:   Workers under Lenin: -Brief period of 'worker power'.  -Labour discipline was tightened.  -During Civil War, passports prevented workers from leaving their employment.  -By 1921, workers could be persecuted if they didn't meet targets.  -Unions became a method of control.  Stalin: -20 million peasants moved to industrial Russia during stalin's regime. -Urban dwellers lived in dormitories and barracks. 25% lived in self-constructed mud huts.  -Communal apartments had severe overcrowding. -'Corner-dwellers' slept in the corners of public spaces.  -Real wages declined in the 1930s. By almost a half. -Poor sanitation and unreliable water supply.  -Consumption levels of the workers dropped dramatically under Stalin. They would never reach the NEP levels. HOWEVER: provision of education and health care increased. Women received more employment opportunities (though it was unlikely they'd access high jobs, and they received much less pay than men.    Culture: -Lenin used propaganda and made it accessible even to the peasants. Stalin:   Religion/national minorities: -Lenin did not see the Church as a threat. -He used a policy of tolerance. -Nevertheless, propaganda applauded secularism.  -However, from 1921: teaching of religion forbidden. -In 1921, the Union of the Militant Godless was established. It launched a fierce attack against the church.  -More than 8,000 killed in the 1922 anti-church campaign.  -Lenin promoted literacy campaigns and the abolition of all anti-semitic laws in 1917. -Lenin gave the Jews separate representation within the government. They were also given a settlement to protect their heritage.  Stalin: -1936 constitution criminalised the publication of religious propaganda. -Stalin began deportations of non-Russians.  -Revival on anti-semitic attitudes. -However, Stalin remained open to inter-marriage.  Cult of personality  -After the attempt on his life in 1918, eulogies appeared in the Bolshevik press giving him Christian like qualities. Portraits appeared in the streets.  -His body was embalmed. -In the power struggle after his death, people criticised their opponents for having fled from Lenin's founding policies.  Stalin:     Culture -Under Lenin, culture was relaxed. The avant-garde rejected the art of a past as linked with the bourgeoisie way of life.  -Artists were excited and encouraged at the end of Tsarist censorship.  -Theatre and cinema flourished - though most successful were works glorifying the Bolsheviks (a re-enactment of the storming of winter palace and the film 'October'. -1925 - Politburo decided not to intervene in productions and the Soviet cinema experienced a period of creativity.  Stalin: -The cultural revolution: -Classroom teaching and discipline were abandoned for 'socially useful labour'. -Increased social mobility. (communist workers moved to white-collar jobs). -The Komsomol was important in the revolution in imposing labour discipline, exposing official abuses and leading the socialist campagin.  -In the Arts, there was a rejection of the old intelligentsia. The RAPP became the dominating force. -The great retreat: -Education: In 1935, selection appeared for all. rote learning re-introduced. Uniform re-appeared in schools. 1938 - Russian compulsory in schools. -Family code of 1936: abortion outlawed, divorce made harder, financial incentives for larger families.  -Workers: Increase in wage differentials (In Magnitogorsk there were 3 different menus for different workers).  -Culture: In April 1932, groups such as the RAPP were abolished and all artists became under one union.  -Artists were given specific guidelines. Boris Pasternak abandoned serious writing. HOWEVER:  -There was no retreat on private ownership.  -The focus under Stalin was still very modern and anti-capitalist.  Stalin: Peasantry: Peasant opposition -In 1930, over 13,000 outbreaks amongst peasantry, 2.5million peasants involved.  -Peasants burned crops, houses, livestock (anything that was an asset and indicative of their wealth).  -Women were very involved.  -In 1930, the mir was abolished.  -Between 1928 and 1941, 20mil peasants moved to towns. (to control this mass movement and expansion of the labour force, internal passports were introduced.  Famine: -1932 Ukraine Famine. 7mil deaths. However: in 1933, procurements were more than double NEP levels and exports did not cease.  -People could not leave the famine area in an effort to conceal the crisis. -In 1935, the 'model statute' was passed that legalised private plots of up to an acre for each household. 

Opposition: faction; the Red Terror and the purges   Opposition faced by Lenin: -SRs  -Peasantry (Tambov rebellion). Peasants did not agree with socialism and wanted to gain wealth and status and achieve Kulak status. -Workers (Kronstadt rebellion), Pulitov strike of 1919   Terror under Lenin: Dealing with opposition: -Opposition press banned. There was an abolition of titles and class distinctions. Cheka was set up in December. They turned on opposition political parties (Kadet party denounced and outlawed). Civil service purged. Constituent assembly closed once the SRs had beaten them overwhelmingly in votes.  -No contender on the left to challenge Bolshevik power. -Class warfare began and was encouraged. People now addressed one another as 'Comrade'. The legal system was abolished and replaced by 'revolutionary justice' which was arbitrary and violent in character. -Propaganda campaigns against class enemies.  Red Terror:Cheka established 1917. Targeted any group deemed to be a threat.  By 1920, it employed 200,000.  THE CHEKA BEGAN TO WIDEN THEIR DEFINITION OF AN ENEMY, THE DEATH TOLL GREW AND SO DID THE CHEKA. CHEKA AGENTS WERE KEEN TO SHOW THEIR ZEAL AND OFTEN TOOK MATTERS INTO THEIR OWN HANDS.  Population: -1918, after peasant resistance and the formation of white Brigades, Lenin called for a 'ruthless mass terror'. He instructed communists in certain cities to execute 100 dissident peasants as a public deterrent. Like the quote system used by Stalin, arbitrary and ruthless. -Peasants who did not meet requisitioning orders/workers who did not meet production quotas were targeted.  -In 1919, first labour camps established by Lenin appeared in Russia. Thousands of 'dissenters' were shipped there.  In 1919, Cheka stormed Pulitov factory. 900 protesting workers arrested, 200 executed.  -8000 priests executed in 1921, children made up 5% of the population in prisons.  -Between 500,000 and 1 million peasants were shot between 1918 and 1921.  -In 1922, dozens of outstanding Russian writers were deported. Pre-publication censorship was introduced.  Government: --The SRs attempted a second revolution in Moscow. They were defeated and arrested.  -In 1918, after the attempt on his life by Kaplan, an SR herself, more than 800 SRs were executed.  -Lenin led a 'chistka' - party cleansing. By mid 1919 Party membership was half what it had been the year before.  -About 220,000 members were purged or left the Party 1921.  -With the NEP, Mensheviks and SRs were outlawed. In 1921, 5,000 Mensheviks were arrested.  -By 1921, Lenin's focus of terror became more political. Ban on factions. 1922 constitution.  Stalin The Kulak offensive under Stalin: -December 1929 - the official liquidation of the Kulak class began. The peasants were frightened into submission.  -Each region had a quota system by which they had to arrest/execute and assigned number of peasants, be they kulaks or not. Quotas were often exceeded so as to prove vigilance.  -Deported Kulaks played an important part in developing industrial resources in remote places at a minimal cost.  -1930-1931: 1.8m peasants deported. -21,000 shot.  -Many left to work in the towns - which exacerbated the conditions there and caused dangerous overcrowding.  -In August 1932 - law of five ears of corn introduced. Any peasant caught stealing corn could be executed - and within a year 1,000 peasants had died from this law.  -Peasants formed the majority of occupants in labour camps by the end of the 1930s. Peasant opposition -In 1930, over 13,000 outbreaks amongst peasantry, 2.5million peasants involved.  -Peasants burned crops, houses, livestock (anything that was an asset and indicative of their wealth).  -Women were very involved.  -In 1930, the mir was abolished.  -Between 1928 and 1941, 20mil peasants moved to towns. (to control this mass movement and expansion of the labour force, internal passports were introduced.  Famine: -1932 Ukraine Famine. 7mil deaths. However: in 1933, procurements were more than double NEP levels and exports did not cease.  -People could not leave the famine area in an effort to conceal the crisis. The Great Terror -1932 - Ryutin platform was released. 200 page critique of Stalin and called for his removal. Ryutin was expelled, but the document made wide circulation within the Party. He was shot dead in 1937.  -At the 17th Party Congress in 1934- the Congress of Victors. some party members opposed Stalin and believed there should be an easing of pressure after relative economic success. Kirov topped the polls. He was murdered a few months later. Zinoviev and Kamenev were blamed. A party purge happened and 250,000 members were expelled.  Opposition elements in the Party and the show trial  -In 1936 Zinoviev and Kamenev and 14 other were accused of being counter-revolutionary. They confessed to murdering Kirov, and were shot. First from the Central Committee to be shot.  -1937 Deputy Commissar for Heavy Industry was arrested after show trial.  -Third show trial involved Bukharin and 20 others.  Purge of the military  -June 1937. The 'Red Napoleon' (hero of the civil war) along with 7 senior military commanders was shot after a secret trial. -Over half of the High Command were shot.  Constitution of 1936 -freedom from arbitrary arrest, freedom of press, universal suffrage.  -This was a hollow piece of propaganda. In the small print, it also said that only communists could stand for elections.  Mass arrests of loyal party-state bureaucracy  -High officials and leadership in every field was hit.  -The new appointments were younger people, solid proletarian elements who owed their education and appointment to Stalin.  -By 1939, 70% of the party had joined after 1929.  -The 1939 Congress saw no opposition to stalin. He had successfully removed any.  NKVD order 00447 -1937 July.  -It was a sweep to eradicate kulaks, active anti-Soviet elements and criminals.  -These opposition elements were divided in two: the most threatening (to be shot) and the less threatening (to be arrested and sent to labour camps).  -Moscow quota (35,000  - 5,000 were to be shot). NKVD massively over fulfilled this target and the death toll estimate (including those who died in labour camps) was over one million.  National sweeps - against the minorities -Stalin feared that the national minorities may form a fifth column. 'Polish Operation' . 80% of those arrested were shot.  -At least 250,000 were killed in the 'ethnic cleansing' carried out by NKVD. Stalin's personal involvement in the Terror -He orchestrated the propaganda campaign in the press. -He orchestrated specific points in the prosecution cases in the show trials.  -He appointed Yezhov to step up the terror. -Stalin agreed to local requests to increase the quote of victims. 

The political, economic and social condition of the Soviet Union by 1941    Stalin's power: The system was moulded to his will. Terror and force were central to his rule. - show trials. Citizens encouraged to denounce each other. internal passports and visas controlled the movement of the population.  He removed any potentially resistant political bodies. He decreased the power of political institutions - the Politburo met almost once a week (43 time in 1932 - in 1938 it met 4 times) Stalin created a new governing elite who had an interest in perpetuating the system. Propaganda centred the joys of life in the USSR, contrasted with the horror of the capitalist west. Stalin had created an urbanised and industrial society wholly directed by the state : socialism. A summary  Economy: His economic policy was very wasteful of lives - but there was an economic transformation. The successes were in heavy industry and large building projects. Failures were in agriculture and the failure of consumer goods. Social: Millions died. Most suffered. The most hard hit were the peasants and gulag dwellers. The 'Brezhnev generation' and the nomenklatura were best off in society. 

Political authority, opposition and the state of Russia in wartime: the political, economic and social impact of war; effect on Stalin, government and 'the people'   The war: -Disaster: By December, the Red Army had lost 6mil. Siege at Leningrad which would last 900 days.  Government evacuated out of Moscow. Fall of Rostov with little resistance.  Soviet surrenders (ukraine) -Triumph: General Zhukov's counter offensive at Stalingrad led to the German surrender. Stalin as a poor wartime leader: -He purged high ranking red army leaders before hand. Germans perceived it as vulnerable.  -He ignored 80 warnings in previous months of a German build up.  -Stalin's inflexible attitude and refusal to take tactical withdrawals led to the losses at Kiev.  Stalin as strong wartime leader: -He did not leave Moscow when gov offices were evacuated. -His speeches to the people of Russia during war were comparable to that of Churchill. He spoke of a 'Patriotic war of all the people'.  -Order 270 and 227 prevented the surrender of red army troops. Thousands of troops were shot this way. -Stalin accepted Zhukov's better military plans (he accepted his plan to abandon Stalin's counter-offensive at Kursk) Political impact: -The GKO. It was given all power.  -Local authorities were given more autonomy concerning matters like rationing.  -The war economy meant that Russia could devote 50% of it's GDP to to the war. Repression: -In territory taken by the Nazis, 1.5m people were deported to the gulags.  -Volga Germans were deported in 1941.  -2m ethnic minorities were deported to the Soviet interior.  -Many returning prisoners of war were sent to gulags. They were all branded as dangerous.  Economic: -The mobilisation of industry. 1.5m wagon loads of industry transported. 10% of Russia's productive workforce was moved.  3500 factories were built.  Towards the end of the War, Russia was producing weapons and war materials quicker than Germany.  The T-34 tank underwent a modification and the hours to produce it were more than halved. It outnumbered and outperformed the German panzer tank.  Social: -Discipline was tightened - rations were confiscated while a soldier was in captivity.  -Nearly 9 million soldiers died during the war (twice the rate of the allies).  -Army officers emerged from the war advocating greater liberalism. -In 1941, a new law mobilised all undrafted workers for work. -Partisan groups were formed to try and sabotage the enemy. -Living standards fell by two-fifths. Lend-lease: imported material as foreign aid greatly helped the red army (and may have even guaranteed their victory).  At the end of the war, lend-lease contributed 10% of USSR's GDP. -Roughly 27 million died in WW2. Women: -8000 female workers lived in holes in the ground. -4/5 collective farmers were women. -100% of nurses on the front line were women.  -1m women served in the armed forces.  -They dominated agriculture and industry during the war.    

Political authority and government to 1953: High Stalinism; the revival of terror; destruction of 'supposed' opposition and cult of personality; the power vacuum on Stalin's death   High Stalinism Features of high stalinism: -Personalised and centralised control. -Command economy focussed on heavy industry. -Stifling bureaucracy. -Cult of personality. -Terror and enhanced role of secret police. -control of propaganda and culture. -Low priority given to the living conditions of lower classes. -Revival of traditional values in the family. -Emphasis on Russian nationalism. Russia was cut off from other Western influences. Revival of terror: -Zhukov was banished to the Urals. His name disappeared from the press. Stalin was considered the only war hero. -Between 1946 and 1948 senior commanders were executed on treason charges. Politburo: -It rarely met after the war and a Party Congress was not convened until 1952. -The NKVD became the MVD and exercised enormous power.  -The party grew from 4-6million. This new intake tended to follow directives without questions.  Why did High Stalinism emerge? -Stalin had been given a new legitimacy after war victory. -The threat of the Cold War gave an excuse for heavy rearmaments.  -Stalin's paranoia worsened.  CHANGE AFTER THE WAR: -He relied increasingly on his private secretariat to bypass gov and party. -He reduced that power of government bodies. Congresses were not held 939-1952. -The Politburo was reduced to n advisory body. Decisions were made by Stalin, and often his inner circle.  -Recruitment to the Party rescinded.  -new party members conformed more. -In Feb 1947, a law passed outlawing marriages to foreigners.  -Vast expansion of the gulag system. -Stalin was portrayed as a great genius. Introduction of 'Stalin prizes'.  CONTINUITY AFTER THE WAR: -Stalin once again reduced the power of any of those successful and influential during the war (zhukov was demoted, Stalin dismantled wartime institutions). GKO dismantled.  -He continued as the head of party and government after the war -New members of the party were still recruited from administrative ranks, not lower classes. -Anti-semitism flourished again.  -Western influence blocked. -Education was governed by marxist principles. Lysenko's flawed ideas. -There was a revival of terror: increase the efficiency of post-war construction. Stalin feared that POWs had been influenced. The victory of war proved his system (to which terror was integral) functioned.  The Leningrad affair 1949 -Zhdanov died suddenly in 1948 after a heart attack. -Rumours spread he had been killed by his doctor, despite it being well known he was a heavy drinker. There was a purge of the Leningrad party afterwards led by Beria. Leading officials of the party were murdered.  Mingrelian Party -In Georgia in 1951 Stalin ordered the arrest of Mingrelian part officials. Many were close to Beria, though he was compelled to carry out the purge.  The Doctors plot -In January 1953, thirteen doctors, several jews, were accused of colluding with the USA to kill Zhdanov and other officials. However, the plot was declared a fabrication and MVD officers were executed.  Tightening of culture -Soviet culture was to be seen as superior to liberals. The State Museum of Modern Western Art was closed down.  4th and 5th Five Year Plans: -4th FYP: It was successful. The USSR was second to USA in industrial capacity. Most targets met. Production doubled. industrially stronger than pre-war.  -5th FYP; Continuation of heavy industry. Malenkov continued it after Stalin's death. National income increased 71%. Malenkov lost his leadership 1955. ​​​​​​​ Power vacuum on Stalin's death: The four main issues following his death: -Terror and repression: -The Russian system of using extreme terror stifled any innovation and initiative. Stalin's possible successors agreed this system of terror was counterproductive. The huge gulag camps (of which had led to over 2.5 m inhabitants) cost more to maintain than the profits made.  -The Cold War; -With the threat of the Cold War, the USSR needed to increase its influence on the world map and reduce the threat from American bases. -The best scientists were likely to be pushed to work in the defence sector. The large army meant that the agriculture sector was deprived of young, fit men.  -There was a vicious circle between the USSR and America, each eager to develop technology and armaments quicker.   The command economy: -The planning system was over rigid, over centralised and excessively bureaucratic. -Innovation was stifled. -Agriculture remained very weak. Stalin ignored the problems there in favour of developing industry.  The stalin image: -His successors could neither criticise him (as they would damage their own previous acceptance of such system). At the same time, dismantling his systems without any critique may lend itself for a lack of effectiveness. The necessity to relax terror was evident but may reform ensue a loss of power/credibility?  

Political authority and government: Khrushchev’s rise to power; policies and ideology; de-Stalinisation; political and party change   Khrushchev's rise to power: -Four main contenders for power were Khrushchev, Bulganin, Malenkov.  Khrushchev became leader with the following advancements; -Establishing collective leadership: Khrushchev had established himself within the collective leadership group. There were of equal power so no-one appeared as a natural successor.  -Beria's arrest: The rising in East Berlin was considered as his fault. He was denounced by Pravda and executed. This eliminated a rival for Khrushchev.  -Policy split between Khrushchev and Malenkov: Malenkov wanted to relax heavy industry and focus more on agriculture and the prosperity of the peasants. He was blamed for the poor harvest of 1953.  He launched his virgin land scheme campaign which was first successful. He afterwards became known as First Secretary. Malenkov was forced to resign from prime minister after he lost the support of those more in favour of preferring heavy industry (like the army).  -Secret Speech.  Khrushchev delivered a secret speech condemning Stalin's use of terror and suggesting he fabricated the evidence that led to them. Anyone who opposed it were seemingly advocating for the continuation of terror. They appeared in favour of extending this horrible system. No-one wanted this. -hundreds of thousands of people were rehabilitated after the secret speech.  -Khrushchev's opponents were considered as being in an 'anti-party group'. They were expelled by the Central Committee. -Zhukov's removal after reforms appeared as though he wanted to build a private army. Bulganin was removed after damming rumours about him.  Democratisation: -June 1955. the gov announced a meeting of the First Party Congress since Stalin's death.  -Weakening the political bureaucracy to give more responsibility to the people.  -Power of ruling classes (who dominated the party) was weakened. Working classes were brought into the Party.  -Limits on the length of time party officials could serve.  HOWEVER -Party remained dominant in government.  -Single party rule - communist dominance was not circumvented.  Decentralised: -Party institutions gained importance as centres for debate.  -Localities had more initiative.  -1962 - party split into urban and rural sections at all levels.  -Membership expanded from 7m to 11m.  -Role of local soviets expanded. Comrade courts handled minor offences. -Non-party members encouraged to take supervisory roles.  -Khrushchev visited towns and cities and showed a personal interest. -Economic decentralisation: power taken from central Moscow and given to provincial authorities. Dismantling the terror system: [Even though Khrushchev was very for the terror under Stalin and zealously over fulfilled his quotas] -Those accused in the Doctors plot were released.  -Beria, the police and the gulag system were all attacked.  -Secret speech.  -Revival of the independent judiciary system.  -Autocratic terror state replaced by a more traditional system of gov.  HOWEVER - Khrushchev crushed the Hungarian uprising which led to the death of 20,000 Hungarians.  Legal changes: -New criminal code of 1958.  -A confession alone was not enough for a conviction.  -Comrade courts were local courts to deal with minor offences. Many were subject to blackmail.    Stalin was condemned as an enemy of the people

Economic and social developments: changes in industrial organisation from Stalin to Khrushchev; agriculture and the Virgin Lands scheme; social and cultural change from Stalin to Khrushchev   Problems he faced: -1953, growth was slowing.  -Enterprises had different targets which was complex and an unsustainable system.  -Too few administrators.  -Managers often hid their true successors.  -Consumer demand had been ignored.  Khrushchev made an honest assessment of Soviet industry and agriculture. He exposed: -the lower productivity rates.  -falling livestock numbers -the inefficiencies of high taxes SO: procurement prices were raised. Taxes cut. Production of fertiliser and age materials increased.  Changes to economy: -Khrushchev divided the USSr into 105 economic regions. Each had its own economic council to supervise affairs.  7th FYP: -Supervised by state committees. Focussed on improving living conditions for people. More focus on 'modern industries' (plastics).  -Power stations built.  -Increased production of consumer goods.  SUCCESSES;  -Technological expansion was a main focus. World was amazed at the Brussels World Fair in 1958. -Railway Network was expanded and lines were electrified.  -Air transport expanded.  -1957; USSR launched Earth's first artificial satellite.  -1959 USSR launched Earth's first nuclear powered ship (icebreaker Lenin) -Industrial output increased in each sector.  -Standards of living improved. -The gap of economic growth was narrowed between USSR and USA.  HOWEVER:  -Decentralisation added another level of bureaucracy. This was abandoned after 1965 as it proved less effective.  -Heavy spending on space race distorted the economy.  -from 1958, growth slowed: was over 10%, in 1964 it was only 7.5%. -Consumer industries, 2% growth in 1964.  Agriculture: -By 1945: agriculture was desperate. 1946 - worst drought since 1891.  -4th FYP aimed to revive barren land. State procurements left peasants with very little. Half of outputs came from private plots. Lysenko's influence hindered farming.  -5th FYP - aimed to continue efforts/ AGR production did not reach the level of 1940.  CHANGES UNDER KHRUSHCHEV: -The power of the Ministry of Agriculture was reduced.  -Power was given to the local party organisations.  -Peasants were encouraged to produce more grain: Price of state procurements raised Procurements quotas reduced Taxes reduced Collectives given autonomy to set their own targets. -Aimed to increased grain output: Increased number of farms connected to the electricity grid.  -1962 campaign for increased use of fertiliser. -Farms now buyable from MTS. MTS were abolished. The kholkoz had to buy materials. The MTS had to constantly go out to fix problems.  -Encouragement to merge collectives intro larger farms. Number of 'state farms' increased. Virgin lands campaign: -Huge operation designed to plough and cultivate virgin lands (in Kazakhstan, the Urals and Siberia). By 1956, an area equal to the total cultivated area of canada was settled on and cultivated.  conditions were primitive and the climate was harsh.  Victory: The harvest of 1956 was the best victory and best in Soviet up to that point.  However, reliance on single-crop cultivation had taken its toll: the soil fertility worsened. Failure to adopt anticorrosion methods led to millions of tons of soil blowing away.  By 1963, the harvest was awful and the VLS produced their smallest crop for years. OTHER CAMPAIGNS:  -MAIZE: It did not ripen in enough places. Khrushchev claimed in 1957 that the USSR would catch up with the USA in per capita meat output by 1960. One Party boss achieved this goal - at the detriment of slaughtering cattle, rustling, false accounting, unfair taxes on meat. The Party Boss shot himself.  -CORNFLAKES PRODUCTION: -CREATION OF HUGE COLLECTIVE TOWNS - never got beyond the visionary stage.  Successes in agriculture:  -The influence of private plots remained – they contributed half the peasant’s income and over 30% of the produce sold in the USSR (even though they were only 3% of the total cultivated area).  -The new pricing system caused difficulty as officials altered the prices – the interference caused inefficiency.  -Selling of tractors was slow, not even farmers to mend repairs.  -‘The Virgin Land Scheme’ was not properly thought out – climate not considered, the intensivity of the work on the land led to land erosion and infertile soil.  -The USSR was forced to import grain (some from North America). -However, Khrushchev was the first Soviet Leader to pour so much effort into agriculture, rural integration was emphasised and its presence within the Party increased.  -Fundamentally, results were inconsistent and Khrushchev’s USSR was conflicting in initiative and given insufficient thought.    Cultural change: -The NEW PARTY PROGRAMME of 1961 aimed to reinvigorate the spirit of the 1920s.  It promised: A communist society by 1980. No housing shortages. A lead over USA in per capita production.  By 1980 the ‘real income per head’ will have increased by more than 250%.  The cultural 'thaw' allowed for some critique of past Soviet ways.   Standards of living  CHANGE: -In 1956, major expansion of the pension scheme for the elderly disabled and sick (the numbers of which had dramatically increased since the War) -In 1964, comprehensive coverage was extended to collective farmers. -Expansion of free health care (increase in doctors and hospital beds.) -In 1957, Khrushchev launched a campaign to end housing shortages. Annual rate of housing construction doubled. 1956-1965, 108 million people moved into new apartments. (These were of poor quality, particularly in urban, overcrowded cities over dubbed ‘Khrushchev slums’ but the general provision of lighting and water marked progress.  -People had increased access to consumer goods. CONTINUITY: -Living conditions in industrial cities remained poor; in 1962 workers in Novocherkassk rioted against shortages and increased food prices. 20 shot but this was concealed with effective censorship.   Wages and working conditions CHANGE: -Working week was shortened.  -Paid holiday duration extended.  -40 hour week introduced.  -Trade unions given more responsibility (acquired an active role in employment negotiations).  -Harsh punishments for being absent were relaxed. -In 1956 minimum wage rose.  -1960s wages of collective farmers were standardised (no longer dependent on harvest levels) -Procurement prices raised; the relative deprivation of the peasantry declined sharply.  -Skilled workers saw a steep rise in their wages.  CONTINUITY: -Rises in wages for white-collar workers in service industries (teachers etc) were less immense (often because they were women).   -Few financial incentives were introduced to make people work hard.    URBANISATION CHANGE: -Urban population increased from 33% of the total in 1940 to 50% in 1960. -The collective farmer was likely to see some of his children rise to working class. -Increasing demand for skilled workers gave workers the opportunity to better themselves.    TAXATION CHANGE: -In 1958, compulsory voluntary subscriptions to the State were abolished.  -Bachelors’ tax and that on childless couples abolished.  -Peasants became eligible for state pensions.  -The difference between the highest and lowest paid in society was lower than in any other industrialised country. CONTINUITY: -Privileges remained in the form of non-wage payments. (Access to scarce commodities, health care and holidays for the ruling classes. -Cars were mainly owned by party officials.    EDUCATION: CHANGE: -After 1958, compulsory education became eight years (7-15). Most students afterwards expected to abandon studies and enter workforce or further skill training.  -Khrushchev abolished school fees imposed by Stalin.  -Khrushchev’s campaign stressed the importance of part-time courses. By 1964 there were about 1,708,000 correspondence courses, and 570,000 evening students in higher education.  -By 1969 there were 794 institutes of higher learning with nearly 4,500,000 students.  -40 universities, technical and agricultural institutes, 80 medical schools.  -These institutes began to pursue modern techniques and efforts were made to catch up with the West in computer design and use.  CONTINUITY: -There was little emphasis on problem-solving.    SOCIAL LIFE CHANGE:  -Cities saw improvements in the provision of public leisure facilities, holidays resorts, parks theatres etc… -Restrictions on foreign literature were lifted.  -Khrushchev launched ‘Intourist’ for westerners to visit USSR. This led to an increased Western influence in Soviet youth culture. ‘Rock and roll’, jazz, ‘slang’ etc.  -These changes were marked by boycotting lectures, hooliganism, and protests against control.  -Survery in 1961 showed that the majority of young people were ‘cynical’ about the ideals of the October Revolution and were motivated by material ambitions. 55% of the population were under 30 – this was a worrying concept.  CONTINUITY: -A limited number of citizens were allowed to travel abroad.   CHURCHES AND RELIGION: CHANGE:  -On Khrushchev’s accession, the Party’s relationship with the church was quite relaxed. -However, Khrushchev sough to revive Lenin’s atheism.  -Anti religious propaganda strengthened, taxes on religious activity. Churches closed.  -Mosques and synagogues also faced attack.  -Atheism introduced in school curriculum, from 1961 children banned from church service. -Pilgrimages banned.  -Anyone criticising atheism liable for punishment.   Ethnic minorities: CHANGE:  -Party doctrine stated that the aim was for ethnic distinctions to disappear and a single common language to be adopted.  -Strategy of ‘reapproachment’; greater unity fusion of nationalities.   CONTINUITY: -Despite Ukrainian himself, Khrushchev made no attempts to advance the independence of ethnic minorities.  -Khrushchev was against Jews having their own schools despite having a Jewish daughter-in-law.  -Jews were not allowed to emigrate to Israel.    Cultural Change: Boris Pasternak:  -The writer of Dr Zhivago. He presented the script to literary journal Novy Mir but it was rejected on the grounds that it betrayed the revolution. However, it was read oversees and in Italy received a prize for literature. It’s illegal distribution across the USSR was helped by the USSR which resulted in his expulsion from the Writers’ Union. His funeral in 1960 saw thousands turn out.    Vasily Grossman -An author. He wrote a book about the Second World War and submitted it to an official literary journal; but the authorities did not permit its publication. In 1961, KGB officers confiscated any material in his flat related to the work. He tried to appeal unsuccessfully to Khrushchev. He died in 1964. The book was published in the West in 1980 and the USSR in 1988.   Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn  -Author of ‘One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich’ which follows the day of a prison inmate whilst serving in a labour camp under Stalin’s orders. It patently delivered the truth of life in labour camps without criticising Stalin or the regime. It was published in 1962 and had sold one million copies within the first sixth months. It resonated strongly with those who had experienced similar punishments.    -Novy Mir -was a literary journal. -It published Solzhenitsyn’s work and attempted to publish more when it asked Party bosses for permission to write some ‘truth’ about the country, but was denied. It is likely that had the Party not refused this request, many publications of a similar unconventional nature may have followed (like Dr Zhivago). -The fact that this publishers had the incentive/audacity to request such a daring liberty suggests that culture under Khrushchev was far more progressive and relaxed. Cultural pursuits -were afforded greater freedom; it was no longer punishable by death to write things of a politically critical nature and this encouraged a greater number of authors to pursue their works. -Under Stalin, anything of this natural was strictly forbidden and led to the deaths of thousands of writers. Khrushchev was more liberal, though not entirely, and the fear that once resonated Stalinist society in the ‘cultural arts’ sector of society was replaced with an elevated sense of freedom of expression.  ‘One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich’ -published because it was not directly critical of the regime. Though something almost definitely forbidden by Stalin, it did not pose a threat to Khrushchev’s regime as its narrative was no inflammatory enough to inspire backlash. -However, Dr Zhivago portrayed the Soviet Union very negatively and would have inevitably incurred backlash. It was explosive and inflammatory and against the founding principles of the Party. However liberal Khrushchev appeared, he was not willing to betray his ideology for a sense of greater freedom.         

Opposition: cultural dissidents; communist divisions; hardliners and reformers; opponents of Khrushchev and his fall from power   Novocherkassk  -There was a mass uprising at Novocherkassk after wage cuts and food price increases.  -The uprising was suppressed by troops. 28 killed. Many more wounded.  -Local officials there were blamed. -There was a news black out surrounding the incident. Overnight, troops were sent to cover the blood stained roads with asphalt.  This demonstrates continued social hardships but also the difference in leaders. stalin would have used fierce propaganda campaigns to denounce the leaders responsible. Khrushchev preferred instead to not have this incident leaked. Political opponents -They were generally not shot -There was an improvement in the treatment in prisons, and their populations were reduced. -Within a few months at the start of Khrushchev's takeover, 8-9 former political prisoners were rehabilitated.  -By 1957, only 2% of the Soviet prison population were political prisoners. -there was minimal outright opposition among soviet citizens to Khrushchev. No organised dissident movements. Cultural dissent -Samizdat was a new way of circulating the arts. It was an individual enterprise whereby everything was done by the individual.  -It was a way of spreading political and factual information on internal events in the country. Poetry readings began to include controversial topics.  Dealing with dissent -The authorities took greater care to prevent unrest occurring.  -More consumer goods available and food prices kept low.  -New layers of social control and peer-policing.  -Network of informants that infiltrated every aspect of society.  -Still no compromise with those considered to be -anti-Soviet.  -More dissenters were jailed 1957-1958 than any other time after Stalin's death (Hungarian rebellion). Khrushchev's overthrow: -He was on holiday in Georgia when a phone call from Brezhnev called him to an emergency meeting. -there, the vote to oust him (due to various reasons) was unanimous.  -He was allowed to retire and ignored. It was presented as ill-health retirement.  Reasons for Khrushchev's overthrow -Khrushchev was not liked (or had in some way angered) each sector of society/bureaucracy.  -The governmental institutions resented his arrogance, policies and reorganisations.  -the military resented his cuts in military expenditure.  -The professionals resented the enhanced role of the party.  -the intelligentsia were disappointed with the retreat from the thaw. -the diplomatic sector were appalled with his behaviour (UN) and his sending his son to West Germany. -the workers were disillusioned with the rise in food prices in 1962. -the peasants resented the disruptive nature of his policies.  Economic problems  -The 1963 harvest. Too much land was given to maize. Over reliance on single-crop cultivation. Failure to adopt anti-erosion methods. (It produced 107m tones despite a target of 170m). The USSR had to import grain from the West (USA) - humiliating as Khrushchev claimed to be an agricultural expert.  -The abandonment of the MTS. Kolkhoz had to buy equipment.  -The growth rate 1963-1964. Lowest growth rate in peacetime Russia since 1918. -Criticised for his lack of attention on heavy industry and focus on consumer goods. -His soaring expenses on the space and arms race was at the detriment of heavy industry development.  -His restrictions on private plots in rural areas. He kept interrupting with agriculture and had little regard for social conditions. Personality and style of rule -He exercised nepotism: his son-in-law had a direct line to his office. He arranged diplomatic relations with West Germany [ignoring bureaucratic advice]. -He had embarrassing flamboyant behaviour: In 1960 at the general assembly of the UN, he banged his shoe for attention.  -He created his own cult of personality, but he didnt have a culture comparable to that of Stalin. Also, he criticised Stalin for having one in his secret speech. -He didn't take advice. Meddled in areas in which he was not well practised (MTS). Political policies -Destalinisation: Greater level of freedom was somewhat dangerous (cultural thaw), lack of terror allowed opposition inside the party.  -Decentralisation: Less power for people at the top, divided party in agriculture, industry. More local power.  -Military: Reduced spending in favour of a nuclear deterrent. However, the military supported him during the anti-party crisis and this was seen as a betrayal of loyalty. Foreign policy  -the Cuban Missile crisis: It was solely Khrushchev's idea to give Cuba missiles. The USA secretly surrender their missiles in Turkey, but Russia publicly capitulated. Khrushchev negotiated this resolution, it appeared as very damming on a seemingly weaker USSR. -Khrushchev had a poor relationship with Mao in China, each country was in competition for world communist leadership.  -The Berlin Wall was Khrushchev's idea. It was built to stop people leaving East Germany and encourage their entering. To the world, it appeared as though he could not sustain communism.