Unit 3

Gender and the World of Work

even if women have high representation, they earn lessPolicy Recommendations for reducing gender wage gap, occupational segregation?-incentivize companies to narrow hiring gaps-mandate child care provision-HeadStart-merit based/blind promotion policies-annual reviews of pay for comparable position-encourage women to take leadership

New Study by Shapiro et. al-racial wealth gap 152,000Biggest Drivers of Racial Wealth Gap 1. year of home ownership2. household income (blacks dominate in fields least likely to have employer benefits/ every dollar increase in income for whites $5.19 increase in wealth, .69dollar for blacks)3. unemployment4. college education5. existing wealth-White 5X likely for inheritance

Home Ownership - residential segregation artificially lowers demand, a forced ceiling on home equity on homes owned in non-white neighborhoods- due to family help, white families start acquiring equity 8 years earlier -family help leads to lower mortgage interest rates-homeownershup 28% higherWhat policies can reduce the racial wealth gap? more integration in neighborhoods- inheritance tax-anti-discrimination in real estate

Nuclear Familyextended familyfamily of orientation-one you grow up infamily of procreation-family formed when couple have first childTheoretical Perspective on FamilyFunctionalist1. Economic production 2. socialization of children 3. care of sick and aged 4. recreation 5. sexual control 6. reproduction- family in some form is universal bc all of these needs must be metConflictGender Analysis w/the Family-who has power in the family? How is this power maintained and who benefits?-"The first class opposition that appears in history coincides w/the development..."EngelsSymbolic Interactionist     -family micro-cultures      -storytelling is a common occurrence in family communicationRational Choice- Gary Becker, " A Treatise on Family(1981)    - marriage markets, demand for children, household production and division of labor    - parents invest in children as a retirement strategy by instilling guilt and a sense of obligation

Domestic Revolutions- A Social History of the American FamilyThe Family in Historyideal family?Lessons from history1. Families have always been fragile, vulnerable to economic stress, and needful of practical and emotional support beyond the nuclear family 2. Families reorganize themselves in response to social changes3. the changes are not linear- social change has changed families and we need to construct new family values and social support systems-rather than trying to recreate some (largely mythical) "tradition

Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolution: A Social History of American Family LifeI. The Godly Family in New England  - btwn 1629 and 1640, 20,000 Puritans came to New England to establish religious community  - family life was not a private space, cut off from public realm         - economic production, religion, education, politics, welfareFamily Interconnections- live-in servants-high rate of marriage and remarriage-intermarriage as a business strategy-marriage was economic, not romantic institutionFamily- unquestioned patriarchy: father held power and representation to wider community-wives expected to be submissive-patriarchy rested upon control of property-children economically dependentChanges: 1640-17761. Diminished parental control over children's marriage2. Diff. conception of childhood-freedom3. redefinition of family functions

Africans in the New World1. Came from Kinship-based societies2. Affected by involuntary relocation to America(lost culture)3. Gender imbalance on plantations, slaves were single4. slave families constantly broken up by routine sales5. slaves families not nuclear6. slave families not organized around long-term monogamous married couplesThese families adapted African cultural traditions to their new realitiesused child-centered rather than marriage centered family systemsadoptive and fictive kin tiesritual con-parenting

III. The Democratic Family-marriage relationship emphasize companionship and mutual affection-a more intense concern for proper upbringing of children-a new division of sex roles, husband to be family breadwinner and wife to specialize in child rearingPrivatization of the Family-families now more disconnected from public realm-families went from being a microcosm of society to a counterweight against larger society-it was a reaction to US rapid material and geographic expansion -major role to rear children and provide emotional support to membersTransformation of Women's Roles - profusion of women's magazines, glorified women as a purer than mean and more prone to sacrifice=cult of true womanhood-growing contrast between increasing freedom of young single girls and constraint on married women-new expectation conceding emotional fulfillment of family and married life.

IV. Industrialization and working class family- Immigration to the US 1830s-1914Effects on Family Life- immigration strengthened family ties upon arrival-living costs often exceeded wages of head of household  -took in boarders, women did housework, children worked

V. Companiante Family 1900-1930- Signs of Crisis1. discovery of high divorce rates2. birhtrate dropping3. "restlessness" of women- beginning to work but had to be submissive, shotgun marriage=once reaction: increased regulation and a return to Victorian FamilyA New Family Ideal- new conception of 'companionate' family promoted by influential educators    1. spouses as friends   2. children as pals- this is foundation for today's expectations3 Forces Driving Change:1. Economic: Changes in availability of resources and form of production -> moved out from family, more psychological 2. Demographic, age distribution3. Cultural: transformation of ideas about women's roles in society

The American Family since 1950+Marriage, cohabitation, fertility and deviance5 BIG Trends:1. Delay in Marriage2. Increase in Cohabitation3. Increase in Divorce(today 50% marriage end in divorce)4. Increase in Working Mothers5. Increase in non marital fertility (blacks 70, white 30%)white women 60% marriedblack women 39% married, marriageable pool is less

Promises I can Keep: Why Poor Women put Motherhood before MarriageThe Spread of Single ParenthoodCurrent Theories-male earnings, low quality of men for marital pool-female earnings, economic independence-welfare, state has taken place of husbandSocial role of Marriage and Children in Low Income Communities-low-income Phila-area mothers who were single by virtue of non marriage or divorce($16,000)Supplementary Data  Fragile Families SurveyCourtship conceive in less than a year her kids, his kids, their kids "I want to have a baby by you" a high form of social praise fathers want a blood tie w/the mother contract initially, then stop when the relationship reaches "another level" confidence from raising siblings and cousins

broken windows theoryThe Pregnancy:-65% neither planned nor avoided-her "responsible" response? Deal with it.-His response?      - denial of paternity    - pressure to terminate    -abandonment     -violence     -cheating     -ripping and running/partying-cohabitation or breakup

THE MAGIC MOMENT: -many survive or reunite at birth-most see at least a good chance of marriage-but see marriage as 4,5 years off-strong rejection of shotgun marriage, but a shared child a powerful reason to stay together....Year 3, about 15% had married, 50% had broken up

Why so Few Marriages childbearing and marriage are not decisions that "go together"  this doesn't indicate a disinterest in marriage, but rather, its a high symbolic value high bar for marriage - economic and relational

Economic Bar:  Marriage= making it(symbol of success) The "white picket fence" lifestyle- house, furniture, care, savings, debt payoff, decent wedding- middle class view economic ability to set up household together is NOT enough(most already cohabiting) not respectable to marry without meeting bar

New TWIST on Economic Bar: mothers feel it necessary that both they and their partners are economically "set" prior to marriage. There is a STRONG aversion to economic dependence on a man defense against patriarchal sex role expectations, defense against bad behavior, insurance against marital failure

Relationship Bar:He, and she must be ready. Takes YEARS to attain            - mistrust high   - want partnership of equals/best friend- normative demands of marriage higher than cohabitation  women worry man will feel more right to control them if married (more than if cohabit) divorce is a "sacrilege"

Fragile Families Survey: Factors Encouraging Marriage by 1 year after birth her education and wage rate dad's employment and annual earnings quality of couple relationship pro-marriage attitude man's general mistrust of men hurts his kids by another mother hurt All above are a net relationship status at birth(break up, visiting, cohabitation)

What Accounts for Break-Up? financial instability/irresponsibility (25%) criminal involvement(30%) incarceration(20%) substance abuse infidelity(40%) domestic abuse

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What about the Kids? Marriage is a lifelong quest, kids come along the way will the baby's father rise to occasion? Hope so, but don't count on it. What would your life be like without children What Children do for Mothers?-We expected mothers to mourn lost opportunities for schooling, career, and marriage-instead they credited their children with virtually everything that was positive about their lives-life before children marred by school failure depression, drugs, volatile personal relationships. Often described as "spinning out of control"Opportunity cost isn't high- they have many disadvantages before-Their children provide key social resources of -validation, purpose, love, order

Not

Not Just Pull, but Push Factors- the stress of an impoverished adolescence breed a deep need for something positive to look to-the loneliness, lack of direction, sense that life has spun dangerously out of control, create a profound drive to make life more meaningful

The Spread of Single Parenthood Revisited

The Poor are responding to a REDEFINITION OF MARRIAGE

Large Change in Family Values Opposition to premarital sex fell from 2/3 to 1/3 opposition to cohabitation fell from 2/3 to 40% opposition to nonmarital childbearing feel dramatically as well opp. to divorce among couples w/children who just can't get along fell from half to 1/5

Marriage No Longer a Cultural Imperative- sexual revolution, pill, acceptability of cohabitation, growing rejection of shotgun marriage and of notion that parents should stay together for the sake of child all weakened the cultural imperative to marry-as marriage lost much of its practice significance, it could become more more symbolic and special in meaning

How the Rich and Poor have adapted to New Marriage Norms? the middle class are delaying marriage more, participating in serial cohabitation/trial marriages more and divorcing mrs when marriage is unsatisfactory the poor are delaying marriage and cohabitating and divorcing more too, but they are also marrying less Why? Though the poor and middle class have same standard for marriage, poor are less likely to meet it

Meanwhile...A high rate of non marital childbearing- children not marriage, education or career are center of meaning making activity-this does not necessarily mean poor love children more,. Children rise to the top of the list of potential meaning making activities from mere lack of competitionlegal system enforced child support law, but no law about rights for father to see the child if woman declines

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The Moral Hierarchy of the Poor-for the poor, it is better to have children outside of marriage than to marry foolishly and risk divorceDo the Poor have Deviant Values?-most think marriage should come first, but these abstract ideas have little day to day relevance-must balance these views against strong moral beliefs about marriage, must calculate risks&rewards of partners available to them- a wait and see approach

Policy Message- as long as young women have few avenues for forging meaning and identity elsewhere, they will continue to have children sooner than most middle class observers think they shall, and in circumstances that are less than idea. 

How do Inner City Men accomplish fatherhood?- they accomplish it through serial fatherhood and selective fatheringMultiple Partner Fertility-when they fail in their role performance with one child, they have another child with a new partner-allows them to feel successful as father even as they leave some of their children behindPre-pregnancy period-pregnancy is the impetus to the relationship, not the outgrowthsimilar to womenWhat does a good father do for his child?-fatherhood ideals  - provide financially  - serve as disciplinarian  - moral guideFathering from a Deficit- have a hard time enacting these ideals- realized they have not earned respect of children, especially if they don't live in the same homeLow income father- relational role, getting women's role

for the poor the functions that a family is supposed to perform (economic and relational support) are now being reached before marriage through cohabitation. A family is a group of kin(genetic ties or initiated by marriage) having responsibility for the upbringing of children. Family started with wife and husband then kid, now the kid and mother make up the family first and the father slowly accepts his bond with them although he does not even live with them...Now family is mainly centered around companionship- hence, the "companionate family." So mothers and fathers both want a meaningful relationship with their kids but not necessarily each other

Redefining Fatherhood- shift focus from traditional ideals -embrace what they can do1. Moral guidance2. be more expressive, be a friend3. spend quality time with kids- redefining fatherhood from financial to emotional

Consequences of this redefinition: not held fully accountable not forced to change lowers the cognitive dissonance over fatherhood failure Positive Consequences of this redefinition:allows for a more doable version of father hood, so it is not all or nothing

How is this redefinition received?- rejected by mother-rejected by state legal system

Why do People Move?Old Answers:Push/Pull Push: poverty, unemployment, famine, war pull: high wages, better living conditions Economic Model -people move to maximize utility. They cease to move/return home if the cost/benefit relation changes.

Observed Patterns: Predictions don't match reality- wage differentials don't explain pattern of international migration-emigration from poor countries increases as economic development takes place in the source country

Emigration as Part of the Development Process-extreme poverty makes it impossible to move- changes associated with development create uncertainty and pressures for household that result in migration-early migration creates opportunities and lowers the cost for later migration

An Integrated Theory of International Migration- Douglass MASSEY-not just push/pull factors-why migration rates sustain themselves*motivations, goals, and aspirations of Actors who migrate- globalization has introduced network factors-easy to communicate**culumative causation theory= self-sustaining networks, people independent of economic change

Forces in Developing Societies that Promote Emigration penetration of capitalist market displacement of people(unemployment)-changing patterns of agriculture and land ownership, rise of cash economy risk rises with no institutional mechanism to deal with it rural to urban migration rises wage differentials increase

Structural Forces in Developed Societies that Attracted Immigrants:  post industrial transformations lead to segmented labor markets- primary labor market = steady work and high pay   VS. secondary labor market=low pay, little stabilities and few opportunities for advancement Global Cities: high wealth inequality, high demand for services recruitment by employers

Motivations, goals, and aspirations of actors who Migrate- §Households try to Manage Risk §Accumulate cash for large purchases, retirement, investment §Cope with market failures by moving overseas temporarily to send money home.

Social and Economic Structures that Arise to Connect in/out Migration     §Recruitment §Transport/Communication/Politics/Culture §Foreign Policy/Military §Migrant Networks

Theory of Cumulative Causation  §Changes in Home Country -Make it harder for an individual or family to live without migration §Changes in Receiving Country -Lower the costs (economic and psychological) of migration for each individual    

Initial Phase     §Capital penetration §Market failure §Social  Capital formation §Cumulative causation

Next Phase     §Level of migration reaches high levels §Costs and risks of international migration drop §Movement is determined by wage differentials and labor demand

Economic Growth in Sending Regions     §International Wage Gaps Diminish §Well Functioning Markets Develop for capital, credit, insurance §If trends continue, country becomes developed, and shifts from exporter to importer of labor §Historically 80-90 years. Now much faster.

Douglas Massey’s prediction :  §Economic and political trends suggest a more restrictive immigration policy regime §Global economy unleashes powerful forces that produce larger and more diverse flows.  

What the Theory Does not Cover    - §Skilled Professional Migration §Refugees §Role of State

Debate about the Role of the State     §How much can the state control migration? -Debate between Massey(state can't control immigration, even if they try, there are unintended consequences)(in egalitarian society constraints on the state, in states that don't stress human rights, has more control on immigration) and Zolberg(state has control, sometimes they don't have firm position) §Was it the Immigration Restriction Laws that stopped immigration or the depression and the world wars? §The neglect of emigration policies. §Communist Countries restricted emigration §Cuba, North Korea strictly control emigration

Immigration Flows Result from More than Just Immigration Policy     §Trade Policy §Foreign Policy §Human Rights Policy §Conflict Prevention §Wars and Population Flows §Regional Integration—NAFTA, European Union

History of Immigration     §Economic Considerations §Need for labor above all else §Race and Ethnicity—cultural issues §Nationalism, Political Loyalty Threats-Foreign Policy Considerations    

U.S. Undocumented Immigrants §Before 1965 it was not really an issue. §1974 “Discovery” of 4-12 million. §Apprehensions as main source of data. §1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) §1.75 million people working since 1982 §special agricultural workers  1.27 million     

§IRCA legalized 3 million people §Illegal immigration current estimate 12 million people. §Annual inflow  500,000 per year. §60% cross the border §40% overstay their visa §After entering country, 1-2% chance of being caught.

The 6 states home to 60% of unauthorized immigrants in 2012    

Why Do Americans Care About Undocumented Immigrants?    

Prop 187 in California 1994  :  §Passed by a 3-2 margin. §Denies Public K-12 and college education to undocumented immigrant school children. §Cuts off publicly funded non emergency medical care, welfare benefits and social services to illegals.-§Struck down by courts.  Education restrictions not implemented.  

Arizona SB 1070     §The Support Our Law Enforcement and Safe Neighborhoods Act  §Seen as one of the toughest anti-illegal immigration laws in the history of the U.S. §What does the law do? racial profiling, externality->immigrants in Arizona moved to other states

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people feel composition of US is changing

President Obama’s Deferred Action For Childhood Arrivals Plan    

Language Assimilation   §Is English in danger? -Are immigrants and their children learning English? §How does language change occur? §Is bilingualism good or bad?  

§Three generation model.  First generation learns some English.  Second generation is bilingual but prefers English.  Third generation is monolingual in English. §Historical exceptions--Germans, French Canadians, Cajuns. §Coercion: schools, Americanization campaigns §Individual Choice: role of employment, residential integration.

Huntington: §The persistent inflow of Hispanic immigrants threatens to divide the US into two peoples, two cultures and two languages.  Unlike past immigrant groups, Mexicans and other Latinos have not assimilated into mainstream US culture, forming instead their own political and linguistic enclaves—from LA to Miami—and rejecting the Anglo Protestant values that built the American dream.  The US ignores this challenge at its peril.

§The debate about language does not pay attention to the empirical evidence. §Language assimilation is massive, but hidden due to ongoing immigration. §Coercive policies could backfire, among later generations English is triumphant with no policy or effort.

Language Switching: §Generation patterns -First generation   -Dominant tongue used instrumentally, esp for work       -Dominant tongue is language of work       -Immigrants dependent on dominant language speakers   -Mother tongue used in other domains       -First generation monolinguals or limited bilinguals

§Second generation -Mother tongue heard/used at home   -Conversation with parents and other 1st generation relatives      -Early childhood: hearing and speaking      -Later childhood/adolescence: hearing   -Speaking in dominant tongue   -Dominant tongue used in all other domains   -Children are “passive bilinguals”

§Third generation  -Dominant tongue used at home and outside home   -Minor mother tongue persistence    -Terms of affection, slang

Switching produces shifting §Language shifting a social process §Consequences of variations in ethnic density/ethnic social structure->Greater social isolation, greater linguistic isolation ->Greater exposure to mother tongue, slower linguistic shift ->Greater exposure to dominants, more rapid linguistic shift

-Language and the contexts of reception    - Bilingualism and assimilation     §Segmented assimilation hypothesis (Portes, Rumbaut, Zhou):        §Blingualism may encourage retention of ethnic culture and identity        §Bilingualism reduces conflict within immigrant family        §Empirical evidence:       -Mixed       -Bilingualism may only matter when parents cannot communicate in English     

Latino Language Assimilation: §Third generation Cubans: 75% speak only English at home. §Third and later generation Mexicans 60% speak only English at home.  §Third and later generation Dominicans 50%.

The Second Generation Prefers English    

Disjuncture Between Scholarship and Public Debate    §Scholars find that bilingualism is good for cognitive development. §Scholars worry that children lose parental language too quickly. §Universal finding of rapid switch to English. §Why are Americans worried about English?  

Transnational vs National Logics §Rise in emigration in one country means a rise in immigration in at least one other country. §Unlike trade policy, immigration policy is formed in a unilateral way.     

What IRCA did     §required employers to attest to their employees' immigration status. §made it illegal to unknowingly hire or recruit unauthorized immigrants. §legalized certain seasonal agricultural illegal immigrants. §legalized illegal immigrants who entered the United States before January 1, 1982 and had resided there continuously with the penalty of a fine, back taxes due, and admission of guilt. §Had to prove that they were not guilty of crimes, were in the country before January 1, 1982, and had to have maximum knowledge about U.S. history, government, and the English language. §It was an attempt to solve the immigration problem during 1986 §About three million undocumented immigrants were granted legal status.

Conclusions: 

Conclusions: - 1. U.S. Immigration Policies have had unintended consequences across country- militarization of the U.S. Mexican border, Mexicans stay in US2. need for labor influences US immigration policy3. Immigrants are assimilating at least linguistically in US4. Nativist responses to immigrants is not new- it is part of US history- Whites were hostile to Irish, Wiley Chinese

marriage is just in a different place in the formation of the family

a disjuncture between their goals of less abortion and divorce and reality-so the poor still face high rates of divorce

femanization of poverty

Cont. Inequality

Family

Promises I can Keep

Doing the Best I Can-: Fatherhood in Inner City

International Migration