Why Should I Be Moral?

Ethical Egoism - Machiavelli-Doing something because it is in your interest to do it. -Machiavelli's The Prince - sometimes you may have to do something that's bad but in your self interest to do so.-Prisoner's dilemma shows instability of egoists position. If everyone was an egoist then everyone would be under the threat of other egoists Psychological Egoism - Nietzsche-The view that it's human nature to desire to pursue our self interest-Nietzsche "life is the will to power"-"innermost drives of his nature" is to "subdue others"-The sipo matador exploiting other plants to get to the top to make a show of it's happiness by making a beautiful flower-Will to express power is behind all our moral dispositions-Lincoln saving the pig for peace of mind - motivated by selfishnessContractarianism - Hobbes/Locke/Rousseau -An enlightened egoist will realise that he or she needs to make contracts with others -Contracts limit threats of others-Alliances bringing additional benefits i.e gain that comes from being a member of a team-Hobbes - Leviathan, around english civil war, believed we need an ultimately powerful sovereign leader otherwise life would be "nasty, solitary, brutish and short" - provides people with protection and order > liberties (more important)-Locke - government acts as something that would help to sort out disputes amongst people -state of perfect freedom - natural condition goverened by reason. Man is able to show respect for the freedom and property of others. Contract protects these rights and authority settles disputes. -Rousseau - man is corrupted by society - freedom is moral-People would accept moral conventions because they maximise satisfation Impartiality - Rawls-Values - decided on behind a veil of ignorance. Not unduly favouring anyone's interests including one's own.-Liberty principle - equal right to most extensive liberty-Equal opportunities principle - inequalities unjust unless they're attached to offices open to all-Difference principle - Inequalities must be to advantage of everyone in society (bottom class must benefit from the inequalities)-Critisicm - promotes values of a western, liberal tradition. - Impartial?-Principles in direct conflict - have to remove resources from the most favoured to give extra support to the least advantaged - contravenes their liberty.Contracts with animals? - Peter Singer-Contract is an exclusively human device -Animals unable to explicitly consent -Do not reciprocate and offer duties in return-Does abscence of contract remove  

Plato - Healthy Personality/The forms/The Ideal -A genuinely rewarding life cannot be one that exploits others/uses people as a means in order to satisfy desire-Would rob life of any meaning or possibilites of fulfillment-Virtue is intrinsic to fulfillment i.e athletes - winning the medal or as an instrinsically fulfilling activity-Virtue brings it's own rewards- Egoists believe doing what makes me happy is right whereas it is doing what is right that makes me happy-Plato's healthy personality - The charioteer with two horses, reason reigning in spirit and desire. -Desire - physical appetites for sex, power and food. -Spirit consisting of emotional capacities, strength of will (anger/jealousy/courage/loyalty)-Reason is an exclusively human capability - allows us to harmonise our personality -Must reach long term goal of beauty, health and fitness (reaching the destination)-Aiming at goal - all our organs, muscles and glands are working harmoniously and efficiently. -Discipline neccessary to repress desires and good habits must be fostered over long term - short term remedies unsuccesful -Egoists - if you continue to treat others with no respect, surely surely you will lose all self respect, self worth and self esteem-Behaving virtuously therefore is the key to a happy and healthy lifestyle-Real happiness comes with the conviction that we are contributing to positive relationships and a flourishing community -Happier when surrounded by positivity and support -Genuine moral conviction and concern for others more satifsfying than egoism?-Must understand other's interests by being a skilled person i.e a doctor -Plato's forms - an unknowable realm from which all things on this earth are copies as we can never achieve perfection - can come to access this perfection through rational thought -analogy of the cave - discover form of 'the good' (the sun)-Plato's ideal - grants that everyone serves a role in society, but the ideal character is the philosopher who is honest/wise/brave/beautiful - excels in the life of the mind, devoted to rational thought (and therefore will begin to understand the forms). Philosophical nature - balanced and harmonious. Life led by rigorous education and training to control spirit and desire. Guided by knowledge of the form of the good. Physical pleasure seen as trivial and unsatisfying. Distraction from the highest forms of life. Mill - Alternative theory on the healthy personality-Mankind is not ifallible, the truth is complex and certainty is unlikely - all only arrive at a portion of the truth-There should be different "experiments in living"-"individuality should assert itself"-Emphasis not on training but on strong impulses and personal energy leading to creativity and originality-Trees and trains analogy - Training/Growing-Train has one function, must conform to one track, soulless, people only successful if they reach their destination-Tree is organic and can develop in many different directions and grows out of deep roots, instincts and convictions. Aristotle- Ehtical knowledge guides our action/Virtue-Rejects that abstract knowledge only obtainable in another realm (world of the forms) can be a necessary precondition of moral behaviour -Any useful knowledge needs to be a generalisation about experience -Aristotle's premises - 1) Everything tends to it;s own good (teleological approach). 2) Ultimate end or purpose is happiness - eudaimonia (well being, flourishing or fulfilment). 3) Happiness achieved by exercising the unique human faculty which separates us from other living creatures 4) The unique human faculty is reason. -Concluding that the flourishing human being achieves the good life by exercising reason which is our chief function. -Happiness desired in itself - not a means to anything else, it is the final goal of human activity, it is desired in itself -The Virtues - the mean - examples Deficiency/Virtuous Mean/Excess Cowardice/Courage/Recklessness Humbleness/Pride/Arrogance Meanness/Generosity/Extravagance -Unlike Plato, Aristotle teaches that knowledge alone cannot make us virtuous - must be practised and acquired -

Kant - Cantegorial Imperative/Conflicting duties -Shopkeeper analogy - doing his dutyCharges fair prices for his good not out off love for his customers or because it's sensible for a successful business not to cheat customers.This is because if the shopkeeper ceased to gain benefit from either or these reasons then he would cease to be honest.More consistency in following a duty. -Duty for duty's sake The importance of the right motive is central to the concept of duty.Performing your duty even if you are not inclined to do them. -Categorical Imperative Real duties contain an 'intrinsic dignity' and 'command' meaning that one must do them regardless of how you feel about itThese principles hold good everywhere - referred to as lawsThese laws are universal and absolute - apply to all humans everywhere regardless of culture/historical periodThey are deontological meaning that they cannot depend on consequences or particular situationsWe use reason to arrive at these laws  - for example,if something is right for me then others should act accordingly in the same situation and vice versa. Basic foundation to morality of when something is right everybody ought to do it, it can be universalised, applying to everyonePeople should not be treated as means to an end, and I should universalise all my motives and act in a way that I would want to be a law for all people to followMoral systems means that we cannot favour certain groups or allow prejudiced interests - must be the same for everyone 

Morality as a Social Contract

Morality as a Constitutive of Self-Interest

Morality as Overcoming Self-Interest