There are three approaches to crime prevention. What are they?

Situational crime prevention developed from the writings of which sociologist?

Clarke claimed that people will commit offences when the benefits of offending outweigh the cons. However, how did Clarke differ from previous sociologists who held this view?

Clarke advocated for counter-measures that make it more difficult to carry out crimes. What is this known as?

To some extent, this approach is based on the concept of the 'defensible space'. Who created this concept?

Which two sociologists developed Newman's ideas further by introducing the routine activities theory?

According to the routine activities theory, when do crimes tend to occur?

According to the theory, what is the most crucial element in the process of a crime occurring?

In order to reduce opportunity, areas with high levels of crime could physically change in order to limit the opportunity to offend. What example does Marcus Felson give of this?

The Port Authority bus terminal was originally designed so that crime was easy but it was redesigned so that it became difficult to offend. This resulted in a drop in crime rates. What concept does this illustrate?

Why was situational crime prevention attractive to policy-makers?

However, which sociologist criticised situational crime prevention for focusing entirely on solutions, thus neglecting to examine the causes of crime?

Additionally, why do Jack Katz and Stephen Lyng argue that designing out crime might actually encourage some offenders to commit crime?

A further criticism is that situational crime prevention is only addresses opportunistic street crime. What types of crime does it fail to acknowledge?

What do Adam Crawford and Karen Evans believe situational crime prevention does to society?

Critics are also wary of situational crime prevention because, in their eyes, it leads to 'crime displacement'. Who first presented this theory?

What are the five different forms of crime displacement identified by Hakim and Rengert?

An alternative to situational crime prevention is environmental crime prevention. This is based on the influential ideas of which right realist criminologists?

Environmental crime prevention argues that high levels of crime occur in neighbourhoods where formal and informal social control are weak. How is it therefore similar to Wilson and Kelling's broken windows theory?

What were the policy implications of environmental crime prevention?

This 'toughening up' resulted in the introduction of zero-tolerance policies. What is the most famous example of zero-tolerance policies being put into action?

In the UK, what can the police and local authorities issue in order to stamp out low-level crime?

How can the police reinforce informal social control, according to Wilson and Kelling?

Environmental crime prevention has been criticised for its focus on zero-tolerance. What do some sociologists feel would be more effective than zero-tolerance policies?

How does Clarke respond to the idea of increasing police patrols in order to reduce crime?

The use of CRIMBOs and CPIs are also potentially difficult to carry out. Why?

Since the 1990s, a rather broad approach, known as social and community crime prevention, has developed. It argues that, alongside crime prevention measures, there must be a focus on which two other elements?

Policy-makers are less interested in the broader causes of crime, instead taking a 'what works' approach. What is meant by this?

By adopting a 'what works approach', risk-focus prevention was established. Who pioneered this?

Risk-focused prevention included a number of components. Give examples:

Which project demonstrates the use of pre-school programmes to help with attainment?

The concept of risk-focused prevention is extremely influential. Which recent British initiative used risk-focused prevention to identify and intervene with at-risk families?

Social and community crime prevention have been criticised for failing to deal with the underlying and deep-seated causes of crime. What does Ian Taylor say they fail to acknowledge?

Like situational crime prevention and environmental crime prevention, social and community crime prevention can be criticised for focusing solely on what?

If crime cannot be prevented, then it should at least be punished. However, the justification of punishment is not straightforward. Which sociologist provides five reasons as to why punishment might be necessary and/or desirable?

What are the five reasons put forward by Joyce?

What does Joyce mean by 'deterrence'?

Deterrence can be individual or general. What does this mean?

However, what does deterrence assume, and why is this a potential weakness?

What does Joyce mean by 'incapacitation'?

What does Joyce mean by 'rehabilitation'?

What does Joyce mean by 'retribution'?

What does Joyce mean by 'restitution'?

Emile Durkheim developed a functionalist view of the development of law and punishment. What does he believe the legal system is related to?

Durkheim saw punishment as having an important role in 'boundary maintenance'. What does he mean by this?

Marxists counter that the law is not a product of a collective conscience but rather created to serve ruling-class interests. Which two sociologists outlined a marxist approach to understanding punishment?

Rusche and Kirkheimer argued that systems of punishment corresponded to the particular economic system in which they were developed. What were the three eras in which different systems of punishment were dominant, according to Rusche and Kirkheimer?

In the early Middle Ages, the system of punishment involved religious penance and fines. Why?

In the later Middle Ages, the system of punishment involved brutal punishment and execution. Why?

In the 17th century, the system of punishment involved imprisonment. Why?

Marxist views have been criticised for providing a rather simplistic explanation of the relationship between punishment and power. What do they take little account of?

Michel Foucault developed a very influential theoretical approach to punishment. He claims that the purpose of punishment has moved away from 'sovereign power' and towards 'disciplinary power'. What do these terms mean?

The concept of disciplinary power coincided with Jeremy Bentham's 'panoptican prison'. What was this?

Foucault argues that disciplinary power became increasingly characteristic of modern society, in which individuals were encouraged to monitor their own behaviour. How has this been extended further since Foucault's time of writing?

State surveillance is widely seen as becoming invasive. However, Foucault does not believe that the state is monopolising power. What does he argue?

Foucault's ideas have been very influential but are also somewhat contradictory. Why?

David Garland also examined the changing nature of punishment and control is contemporary societies. He argues that there has been a shift in attitudes towards punishment since the 1970s. What has this created?

The culture of control obviously attempts to deal with crime, but what does it also intend to do?

The culture of control contains three main elements, all of which aim to change society's attitudes to crime and the role of the state in tackling offending. What are the three elements?

What is the 'adaptive response'?

What is the 'expressive strategy'?

What is the 'sovereign state strategy'?

Garland's view highlights the importance of 'law and order politics'. What impact does this acknowledgement have?

Stanley Cohen provided an alternative interpretation of the direction states have taken in producing social control. What did he argue about social control mechanisms?

Cohen's arguments reflect those put forward by Foucault, who argued that the discourses of professional groups can contribute to the exercise of power over populations. What do these ideas draw attention to?

The UK's current rate of imprisonment is currently the highest rate of imprisonment in Western Europe. This is partially because it is widely believed that 'prison works'. What do right realists such as Charles Murray think of imprisonment?

Alison Leibling and Ben Crewe agree that prisons can prevent reoffending through deterrence, but point out that there are some flaws in this argument. Give examples:

This may explain why there are such high rates of reoffending. How many prisoners are reconvicted of an offence within two years of being released?

According to Liebling and Crewe, what is the true function of imprisonment?

The UN defined victims of crime as people who suffer physical, mental, emotional and/or economic harm or have their fundamental rights substantially impaired. Which sociologist disagrees with this definition?

Watts et al argue that the difference between an offender and a victim isn't always clear cut. Give an example:

Which sociologist argues that the stereotype we have about victims (someone who is weak and virtuous) is not always correct?

Positivist victimology is concerned with factors affecting rates of victimisation as measured in statistical studies. The identification of patterns of victimisation has been made possible through the increasing use of what?

Victimisation surveys supplement official statistics in understanding victims in a number of ways. Give examples:

The British Crime Survey found that the chances of being a victim of most crimes are linked to a number of factors. Give examples:

It should be noted that patterns of victimisation do vary with specific types of crime. Give an example:

More controversially, positivist victimology present the idea of victim precipitation. What does this idea argue?

Which two sociologists first claimed that homicide could be victim-precipitated?

Which sociologist stated that 20% of all rapes are victim-precipitated?

Why has the concept of victim-precipitation been heavily criticised?

What are the advantages of positivist victimology?

What are the disadvantages of positivist victimology?

What do radical victimologists believe we should take account of when attempting to understand victimisation?

Using an in-depth local victim survey in Islington, Trevor Jones et al demonstrate a radical victimology approach. What did they find?

Why do critical criminologists criticise radical victimology?

Critical victimologists question the entire category of 'the victim'. Who defines who is and isn't a victim, and why should we question this definition?

As such, who does critical criminology typically concentrate on?

Who favours the critical victimology approach?

What does Sarah Walklate accept about political campaigning by victim groups?

Which two sociologists argue that many people are victim to corporate crime without even realising it?

For example, according to Tombs and Whyte, how many people in the United Kingdom and killed annually by air pollution?

Why can it be argued that victim surveys are therefore of little use?

Despite the differences between positivist, radical and critical victimology, how should we use these approaches?