Criteria for the causation of A and B

Research Designs

Cross-sectional research

Longitudinal research

Experimental research

The Coercive Spiral

Protective vs. Facilitative influence

How is influence additive?

How is influence non-additive?

Risk factor

Direct protective factor

Buffering protective factor

Wermer's study in Maui, Hawaii

Protective factors at the individual level

Protective factors at the family factors

Protective factors at school

Protective factors at peers

Protective factors at neighbourhood

Interaction of parental monitoring and genetic susceptibility