TSH is produced from hypothalamus to bind to its receptor of the cellular membrane of the thyroid cell

CRH from hypothalamus stimulates anterior pituitary cells to liberate FSH and LH

Paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus increases liberation of oxytocin in positive feedback in response mechanism stimulation of the uterine cervix. it initiates and supports uterine contraction

Liberation of CRH is controlled by corticotropin (ACTH) and cortisol in mechanism negative feedback

Most CO2 is transported in form of carbaminians and carbaminohemoglobin

Bicarbonate binds reversibly heme moiety of hemoglobin

Most CO2 is converted to bicarbonate by carbonic anhydrase of erythrocyte

Part of CO2 is reversibly bound to hemoglobin forming carboxyhemoglobin

Specific heat of water is low. Because of this reason water is excellent heat conductor

Water is an excellent solvent because of its polar molecule

Water easily passes across cellular membrane through non-gated channel for cations

Vasopressin controls synthesis of the protein-AQP2 and its insertion to the apical membrane of the cells of the collecting ducts in kidney. AQP2 performs active transport.

Adipose tissue is the least hydrated tissue

1, 2, 3, 4

3, 2, 4, 1

3, 4, 2, 1

1, 4, 2, 3

Sphingosine 1-phosphate derived from their plasma membrane is a strong chemoattractant agent mobilizing HSC from bone marrow niches

Sphingosine 1 -phosphate derived from their plasma membrane is a strong chemoattractant agent facilitating homing of HSC in bone marrow niches

Nitric oxide liberated from hemoglobin in tissues, facilitates vasodilation improving blood supply

Carbonic anhydrase of erythrocytes reduces hemoglobin, improving oxygen supply to tissues

2,3-DPG increases affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen and decreases oxygen utilization

Water soluble substances are transported through the cellular direction of such a diffusion depends on a chemical gradient

Na+ passes through the nicotinic receptor which is a ligand

Facilitated diffusion of hydrophobic substances easily

Glucose transporters GLUT are examples of system

Rise of the concentration 2,3 DPG

Rise of pH

Decline of the pCO2-

Rise to the body temperature

Anemia

it is a ratio of volume of all erythrocyte to the volume of the whole blood

It is proportionate to plasma concentration of globulin

it should not exceed 15mm/h in healthy adults. It is much higher in infectious diseases and cancer

It is proportionate to packed cell volume (PCV, Hematocrit)

It can easily produce agglutination of erythrocyte in room temperature

It can cross blood placenta barrier

It can bind complement

It has two antigen binding sites

it's a secretory immunoglobulin

They contain fetal hemoglobin which is replaced by the adult type of hemoglobin during first weeks of life

Their shape is more spherical; they have small fragments of cellular nuclei

The characterize with lower affinity for oxygen than erythrocyte with adult hemoglobin

Their expression of antigens of ABO system is lower (they have less antigens of ABO systems on their erythrocyte)

All muscarinic receptors are g-protein coupled receptors.

Some of the cholinergic receptors are tyrosine kinase

Some of them are ionotropic receptors of the postsynaptic membrane of the autonomic ganglia

Activation of muscarinic receptors rises activity of the adenylyl cyclase

Glycine receptor is one of best known example of the g-protein

They are all metabotropic receptors

They are metabotropic receptors able to autophosphorylate

They activates synthesis of intracellular messengers such as cAMP

PTH receptor

IP3 receptor

IGF receptor

Adrenergic receptor

It is a ligand-gated sodium channel

Activity of this receptor brings IPSP to the postsynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction

It is a channel for small cations and anions. It is blocked by nicotine

Two molecules of a natural agonist are bound to alpha-subunits of the receptor

It inhibits activity of plasma factors 4 and 5.

It activates natural anticoagulant protein of platelet

It inhibits activity of activated Stuart factor and thrombin (factor X and II)

It facilitates adhesion and aggregation of platelet

It performs proteolytic degradation of activated factor I

Most known action of TxA2 are mediated by its own receptor which is a ligand

TxA2 intensifies degranulation of platelet (release of the content of granules)

It facilitates aggregation of platelet

It produces vascular contraction

It activates fibrinolysis

Heparin

Tissue thromboplastin

Antithrombin III

Fibrinogen

Fibrin deposition

Histamine

Prolonged clotting time

Prolonged APTT(activated partial thromboplastin time)

Prolonged bleeding time

Prolonged prothrombin time (increased INR)

Prolonged thrombin time

They can be activated by heparin

They adhere to intact vessel in presence of heparin

They are activated by tissue thromboplastin

Their activity is irreversibly inhibited by aspirin

They adhere to sub-endothelial collagen and non-collagen glycoprotein

It intensifies both calcium and phosphate reabsorption

It increases concentration of phosphate in plasma of bloods

It increases activity of 1a-hydroxylase in kidneys

It decreases reabsorption of calcium from gastrointestinal tract

It is prolonged in people treated with heparin

It depends on the number of platelets

It depends on the state of the vascular wall

It tests processes of intrinsic pathway of coagulation

MHC class II is presented on their membrane

In effect of antigenic stimulation, they form plasma cell and secrete immunoglobulin

They are formed mainly in thymus

They mediate cellular immunity

The sequence of amino acids of both the A antigen and B antigen

Enzyme transferase that catalyzes placement of N-acerylgalactosamine onto H antigen

Enzyme transferase that catalyzes placement of fucose forming H Antigen

Enzyme transferase that catalyzes placement of N-acetylalactosamine onto D Antigen

Enzyme transferase that catalyzes placement of D-galactose onto H antigen

The child is the natural offspring of this couple

The mother is natural, the father is not the natural father

The father is natural and the mother is not the natural mother

Blood type in ABO system is A

Blood type in ABO system is B

Blood type in ABO system is AB

Child is Rh- Positive

Volume of plasma is improper and equals 10 liters, the possible reason is over hydration or hypervolemia

Volume of plasma is proper and equals 3.2-3,5 liters. Water homeostasis is maintained

Volume of extracellular fluid is proper and equals 10 liters. Water homeostasis is maintained.

Volume of extracellular is improper and equals 10 liters. The possible reason is dehydration

Muscarinic receptor are coupled to phospholipase C and adenylyl cyclase

GABAb receptor is an example of metabotropic receptor

Tyrosine kinase receptors are metabotropic receptor able to autophosphorylates after binding their ligands

Some adrenergic receptors are tyrosine kinase receptors

Binding of insulin to G protein of the insulin receptor initiates process of activation of adenylyl cyclase

Extracellular ligands bind to G-protein coupled receptors which in turn activate particular G protein

Inhibitory G protein (Gi protien) is coupled to carbonic anhydrase of some cells

The G-protein activates a cascade of signaling events that finally results in a change in cell functions

Ryanodine receptor

Rhodopsin receptor

PTH receptor

Nicotine receptor

Dopamine decreases liberation of from APG in mechanism of negative feedback

Liberation of corticoliberin (CRH) from APG is stimulated by corticotropin (ACTH)

TSH is liberated from APG. TSH binds its metatropic receptor of the membrane of the thyroid cell

GnRH (gonadoliberin) from hypothalamus stimulates anterior pituitary cells to secrete FSH and LH

Prolactin is produced by supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus and liberated by the anterior pituitary

It mediates vasoconstriction

It decreases reabsorption of sodium ions in kidneys

It stimulates secretion of aldosterone from adrenal cortex

It increases heart rate

It produces contraction of the uterus

It binds to the ligand-gated sodium channel of smooth muscle cells of the uterus

It is responsible for milk ejection due to contraction of myoepithelial cells

It has galactopoietic activity -it stimulates production of milk

Increased arterial pressure

Reduced volume of ECF and hypoperfusion of the kidney

Decreased load of distal tubular fluid (NaCl) in area of the macula densa (of the distal tubule)

Increased volume of ECF (hypervolemina)

1, 2, 4, 3

1, 3, 2, 4

4, 2, 3, 1

1, 2, 3, 4

Na/K ATPase exchanges 2 sodium ions for 1 potassium ion. Each such exchange requires 2 ATP molecules

Co-transportation of glucose and sodium ions requires previous action of Na/K-ATPase. Such the mechanism is an example of secondary active transport

Calcium ions are actively pumped into cellular cytosol by the calcium ATP-ase. This mechanism maintains higher concentration of calcium in cellular cytosol than in ECF

Active transport mechanism are able to move substances against concentration gradient

Rise of liberation of histamine from mast cells

Rise of gluconeogenesis

Rise of plasma concentration free fatty acids

Intensification of catecholamine-dependent bronchodilation

Extracellular ligand such as glycine

Change of the electrical potential of the cellular membrane

Mechanical deformation of the cell

Second messenger such as IP3

Beta-adrenergic receptor is ligand-gated channel

Activity of adrenergic receptors brings EPSP to the postsynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction

Beta-adrenergic receptors are G protein coupled receptors related to adenylyl cyclase

Activation of beta-adrenergic receptors up-regulates synthesis of cAMP

Growth hormone exerts hypercalcemic effect

PTH up-regulated (increases) mobilization of calcium ion from bones

PTH decreases activity of 1alpha-hydroxylase of vitamin 25-OHD3 in kidney

Thyroid hormones decrease plasma concentration of calcium

5% solution of glucose

Benzene, ether and other organic solvents

IgG against D-antigen administered to Rh-D-negative mother after delivery of the Rh-D positive fetus

0,6% saline

Rise of pH

Rise pO2

Rise of body temperature

Rise of CO2

Adenosine and androgens inhibit secretion of EPO

EPO is produced by interstitial cells in peritubular capillary bed of kidneys

EPO increases the number of erythropoietin sensitive committed stem cells in the bone marrow that are converted by red blood cell precursors

Hypoxia (low partial pressure of O2) in kidney is the main stimulus for EPO release

5-7% of all the CO2 is transported physically dissolved in blood

10% of CO2 is converted to bicarbonate. Conversion is spontaneous and performed in plasma of blood

Part of CO2 is reversibly bound to hemoglobin, forming carbaminohemoglobin

Carbaminohemoglobin is an example of reduced hemoglobin of red-brown colour

They migrate in large number into tissues infected by parasites where they release hydrolytic enzymes

They release heparin, histamine as well as small quantities of bradykinin and serotonin

They belong to the adaptive immune system. they are not able to phagocyte

They aggregate in tissues when allergic reactions occur, (peribronchial tissue in people with asthma)

The exhibit chemotaxis

Administration of heparin slows the process agglutination

Agglutination is in vitro phenomenon resulting from an interaction between the agglutinogen and agglutinin

Gamma globulins of IgM class are able to produce immediate agglutination in room temperature

Agglutination results from an interaction between the platelet's GP IIb/IIIa and vascular collagen

Agglutinins against antigens of Rh system develop in childhood

Immediately after birth, the quantity of agglutinins in the plasma of the newborn is almost zero

Immunoglobulin against antigens 0-A-B blood type system are produced by the fetus before the birth

Agglutinins in 0-A-B blood type system are produced in effect of immunization against antigens A and B commonly present in environment

D antigen is the most antigenic (the strongest) component of the system

D antigen is the only antigen of the system

Antigens are proteins, located only on membranes of erythrocytes

Agglutinogens are synthesized in Rh-D negative individuals after exposure to Rh-D positive blood

Chemotaxis (chemoattraction) of macrophages and neutrophils

Degranulation of the eosinophils and monocytes - mast cells and basophils

Promotion of agglutination of invading microbes

Presenting on the water soluble antigen

Opsonization

Maturation of erythrocytes

It can easily produce agglutination of erythrocytes

It cannot cross blood-placenta barrier

Binding of C1 complex of complement to antigen-IgG complex initiates classical pathway of complement activation

It has only 2 antigen-binding sites

It is a memory immunoglobulin

Its duration is inversely proportional to the number of platelets

It does not depend on concentration and activity of plasma factors of secondary hemostasis

It is prolonged in people treated with heparin

It tests processes of intrinsic pathway of coagulation

They mediate cellular immunity

Lymphocytes B are classified as professional antigen presenting cells

They are formed mainly in in thymus

B lymphocytes express B cell receptors on their cell membrane. It allows B lymphocytes to bind a specific antigen

75%

0%

50%

25%

Nicotinic receptor is an example of G-Protein coupled receptor

Examples of G-Protein coupled receptor are rhodopsin and GABA(b)-Receptor.

G-Protein coupled receptors are metabotropic receptors

All G-Protein coupled receptors are metabotropic receptors, they activate intracellular enzymes.

All muscarinic receptors are serpentine G-coupled receptors.

Some of them are ligand-gated ionic channels.

Muscarinic receptors modify activity of adenylyl cyclase of phospholipase C.

Acetylcholine is an antagonist of all muscarinic receptors

IP3 & ryanodine receptors

Rhodopsin and vasopressin receptors

Insulin and adrenergic receptors

Glycine & nicotinic receptors

1, 2, 4, 3

1, 3, 4, 2

2, 3, 4, 1

2, 4, 3, 1

In facilitated diffusion, membrane carriers enable movement of molecules through cellular membranes against concentration gradient.

Particular membrane carrier is able to transfer one particular type of molecules soluble in water.

Facilitated diffusion characterized with limit rate of transfer of substance diffuse as maximum saturation.

Water molecules pass from the cell of the collecting duct to its lumen through the system of facilitated diffusion called AQP2

Insulin receptor open channels for tyrosine, which become phosphorylated in cytosol of the cell - belong to the family of tyrosine kinase receptor

Glycine receptor is an example of chemically-gated channel for chloride ion

Smooth muscle cells can contract being mechanically stretched it is mediated by stretch gated channels

Action potential of excitable cells is usually evoked by entrance of cations through electrical gated channels

Action potential of excitable cells is usually provoked by outflow of anions through ligand-gated channels

Express MHC II

Include cellular response

Include humoral response

Stimulated by IL-2

Carboxyhemoglobin is a reduced form
greater than O2

Methemoglobin is the oxidized form

Carries 97% of oxygen in blood

Carries 97% of CO2

Child is a natural offspring of this couple

Mother is natural, father is not the natural father

Father is natural, mother is not the natural mother

Blood types in ABO system is A

Blood types in ABO system is B

Blood types in ABO system is AB

Child is Rh-

Child is Rh+

Depends on factor 3-12

Depends on release of HMWK

Depends on vascular wall

Needs calcium ions

Needs action of thromboxane

Distilled water

0.5% concentration of glucose

Urea solution

0.2% saline

Has 2 antigen binding sites

Memory immunoglobulin

Activate complement

Produce aggregation in standard environment of own plasma

Increased blood pressure

Increased blood volume

Increased osmotic pressure of blood and cerebrospinal fluid

Decreased blood volume

Decreased osmotic pressure of blood and cerebrospinal fluid

Hyperglycemia

Hypoglycemia

Stress and sleep (REM)

Physical exercise

Acidosis

Increase concentration of 2,3 BPG in erythrocytes

Increased temperature

Decreased pH of blood

Protein can diffuse easily through membrane

Depends on chemical gradient

Hydrophobic proteins cannot diffuse via membrane

Contain immature hemoglobin that matures during first week after delivery

Hemoglobin has higher affinity to oxygen

Have small nucleus

Contain less hemoglobin than mature erythrocytes

Water characterizes with extremely high specific heat -absorption of energy without change of temperature

It is a natural solvent and environment for all physiological and chemical processes occurring inhuman organism

Aldosterone directly increases water reabsorption in collecting duct

Main cation of intracellular water compartment is Mg2+, main anion HCO3-

Its volume can't be assessed by intravenous injection of Inulin or other colloid molecule

Majority of water of TBW fills extracellular compartment of organism

It is usually 60% of the body weight of the young adult human and it tends to decrease with age

Water can easily pass through cellular membrane via common to all cells water channel- aquaporin AQP1

GnRH liberated from hypothalamus

Hyperglycemia

Decreased concentration of FFA + glucose in plasma

Physical exercise

Peptide hormone synthesized in anterior pituitary gland

Its liberation is inhibited by stimulation of mechanoreceptors located in cervix of the uterus

Responsible for milk ejection due to contraction of myoepithelial cells

Produces contraction of smooth muscle cells of pregnant + non-pregnant uterus

Affinity is inversely proportional to pH

Affinity is proportionate to the body temperature

Product of glycolysis in erythrocytes - 2,3 BPG decreases affinity of hemoglobulin for oxygen

High partial pressure of carbon dioxide - pCO2 in plasma decreases affinity of hemoglobin for
oxygen

Hemorrhage (rapid loss of blood cells)

Anemia (loss of RBC)

Dehydration

Repetitive exercise

They have gene/genes coding for the sequence amino acids of fucosyl-transferase

Have no antigens on membranes of erythrocytes

Both anti-A and anti-B immunoglobulins are synthesized after exposition to those antigens

Both anti-A and anti-B hemagglutinins are present in their plasma since their birth

Hypertonic solution of glucose

Organic solvents (soap, detergents, etc)

Distilled water

Hypotonic solution of sodium chloride

Anemia

Hypobilirubinemia

Decreased production of EPO

Death

They are mediators of humoral immunity

They are formed mainly in thymus

In effect of antigenic stimulation they form plasma cells which secrete Ig

They mediate cellular immunity

Cooling (decreasing of temp) of in vitro preparation

Administration of Ig against human IgG (idea of indirect antiglobulin test/indirect Coombs test)

Enzymatic modification of molecules of IgG immunoglobulins

Activation of complete system performed by complexes antigen immunoglobulins IgM/IgG

Macrophages

Thrombocytes

Hematopoietic stem cells

Erythrocytes

Memory B lymphocyte

Her RBC is approximately 3,5 mln/mm3

She is in a state of dehydration

The client suffers anemia

Client is in a state of polycythemia

Her RBC is approximately 2,0 mln/mm3

85% of erythropoietin comes from kidney and 15% from liver

Synthesized in kidney and next hydroxylated in liver in effect of hypoxia

Chemoattractant facilitates homing of blood progenitor cells in bone marrow

Bilaterally nephrectomized (removal of both kidneys) patients are able to maintain proper erythropoiesis

EPO stimulates differentiation of erythrocytes from cells of Colony Forming Unit of Mixed Lineages

G-CSF and interleukins 3 stimulates differentiation of erythrocytes from Colony Forming Unit of Mixed-Lineages

Migrate among stem cell niches of embryo

Possesses ability for self renewal, highly resistant to radio chemotherapy

HSCs are not able to differentiate into blood cells of lymphoid lineage

Migration of HSCs finishes after birth. Hematopoiesis is performed in axial skeleton + proximal parts of long bones

Measurement of leukocytes requires previous hemolysis of erythrocytes

Fluids used for counting of leukocytes shrink erythrocytes

Fluids used for counting of leukocytes stain organelles of leukocytes

Counting of leukocytes requires previous staining of all blood cells

Hypertonic solution used for counting of leukocytes dilutes blood

Assessment of ESR requires centrifugation of erythrocytes

Increase of globulins concentration and decrease of albumin concentration in plasma decreases aggregating ability of erythrocytes. Due to this reason ESR rises

Normal ESR in healthy adult humans is usually lower than 10 mm/hour

ESR increases during menstruation and after physical exercise

RDW (RBC distribution width) is quantitative measure of MCV

MCV is an erythrocyte index expressing average volume of erythrocytes

Concentration of hemoglobin in blood of healthy adult women ranges 12-16 g/dL

Standard erythrocyte due to its size + shape is not able to pass via capillaries which diameter is lower than 10 micrometer

Secreted by plasmocytes in effect of immune response

It is any substance which is able to induce specific immune-response

Secreted by T-lymphocytes in effect of immune response

Able to activate complement system when bound by APCs

Have large, dark blue granules in their cytoplasm

Present antigens to immune competent cells

Account for 5-10% of all leukocytes of peripheral blood

Their granules contain histamine, heparin + other chemicals involved in allergic + immune responses

It inhibits secretory processes

Maintains proper functioning of cellular membrane transport

Factor 4 of coagulation supports proper coagulation process

It modifies hemoglobin which reduces hemoglobin affinity for oxygen

High plasma concentration of magnesium produces tetany

Hypocalcemia produces tetany

Tetany can be observed in people whose ventilation is depressed

Tetany will be observed in people with elevated level of PTH in plasma

Tetany can be observed in hyperventilating people

Can easily produce aggregation in standard environment of own plasma

Cannot pass through placenta

Can activate complement system

Has 2 antigen binding sites

A memory immunoglobulin

Methemoglobin which is a form of oxygenated hemoglobin present in lungs

Carbaminohemoglobin, form of deoxygenated hemoglobin bound by CO2

Carbaminohemoglobin, a form of deoxygenated hemoglobin bound by CO

Oxyhemoglobin, a form of oxygenated hemoglobin present in lungs

Oxyhemoglobin, a form of oxidized hemoglobin dominating in erythrocytes of arterial blood

Prolonged in case of low plasma concentration of fibrinogen (Factor 1)

Depends on processes of intrinsic pathway of coagulation

Depends on platelets count

Depends on state of vascular wall

They can be activated by heparin. substrates for thrombin

Post-translatory modification of molecules of prothrombin factor 2 + 10 in liver depends on vitamin K

Activity is inhibited by inhibitors of cyclooxygenase

They are plasma coagulation factors 1, 5, 8

They are proteolytic enzymes (serine-proteases)

They can be activated by heparin

They are plasma coagulation factors II, VII, IX, X

They are plasma coagulation factors I, V, VIII, XIII

Their activity is inhibited by inhibitors of cyclooxygenase

They are plasma coagulation factors XI, XII, HMWK

Inhibited by coumarin-derivatives such as dikumarol + warfarin

Begins with exposure of collagen + activation of factor 7+3 coagulation

Begins with liberation of tissue thromboplastin (tissue factor (3))

Requires factor 12 for full activation of hemostatic process

Requires calcium ions

Agglutinogens are synthesized in Rh+ individuals after exposure to Rh- blood

Hemagglutinins in ABO system are mostly IgM class

Hemagglutinins in ABO system are inborn

In ABO system they are synthesized after immunization against antigen A + B commonly present in environment

IP3 receptor.

Ryanodine receptor.

Glycine receptors.

GABAA receptors.

Nicotinic receptors

They are present in almost all cells, except for erythrocytes.

They are present only on antigen presenting cell.

Their role is to present proteins and activate helper T-lymphocytes

It plays role in defense against intracellular pathogens.

prolonged in case of low plasma concentration of fibrinogen (factor 1)

Depends in processes of intrinsic pathway of coagulation

depends on platelets count

depends on state of vascular wall

they can be activated by heparin. substrates for thrombin

Post-translatory modification of molecules of prothrombin factor 2 & 10 in liver depends on vitamin K

activity is inhibited by inhibitors of cyclooxygenase

They are plasma coagulation factors 1, 5, 8

They are proteolytic enzymes (serine-proteases)

They can be activated by heparin

They are plasma coagulation factors II, VII, IX, X

They are plasma coagulation factors I, V, VIII, XIII

Their activity is inhibited by inhibitors of cyclooxygenase

They are plasma coagulation factors XI, XII, HMWK

Inhibited by coumarin-derivatives such as dikumarol and warfarin