1. Epistemology, Photo Elicitation, Reflexivity and Social Construction

Qualitative research uses

Epistemology is the theory of knowledge, especially with regard to it's methods, validity and scope, and the justified distinction between justified belief and opinion.

[blank_start]Epistemology[blank_end] is the theory of knowledge, especially with regard to it's methods, validity and scope, and the justified distinction between justified belief and opinion.

Epistemology is...

[blank_start]Qualitative[blank_end] research employs a large-grained sieve. [blank_start]Quantitative[blank_end] research is very structured. Sometimes important stuff cannot be [blank_start]quantified[blank_end]. [blank_start]Qualitative[blank_end] is more open-ended. [blank_start]Qualitative[blank_end] methods can help discover the unknown unknowns. Behind numbers, there is usually a [blank_start]qualitative[blank_end] judgement. [blank_start]Quantitative[blank_end] research employs a fine-grained sieve. Some things are better not [blank_start]quantified[blank_end]. [blank_start]Quantitative[blank_end] research is variable-centric.

[blank_start]Ontology[blank_end]: The nature of reality. [blank_start]Epistemology[blank_end]: The way we know what we know. [blank_start]Ideology[blank_end]: The relevance of values. [blank_start]Methodology[blank_end]: The role of the researcher, relationship with participants and the design of the research.

Ontology is the way we know what we know.

Epistemology is the relevance of values.

Ideology is the relevance of values.

Ontology is the nature of reality

Epistemology is the way we know what we know.

Epistemology is the

Ideology is

Ontology is

Methodology is

Qualitative methods are not good for understanding participants' lived experiences.

[blank_start]Ontology[blank_end] is about the nature of reality.

[blank_start]Epistemology[blank_end] is the way we know what we know.

[blank_start]Ideology[blank_end] is about the relevance of values.

Further investigation of an incident may be required if a participant minimises their experience. For example, a participant says "just normal everyday losing the plot", is further investigation required to find out what losing the plot means?

If you are [blank_start]controlling[blank_end] the setting you’re more likely to be [blank_start]quantitative[blank_end], if you are [blank_start]observing[blank_end] you are more likely to be [blank_start]qualitative[blank_end].

Qualitative research is pre-categorised, you say ahead of time what the valid response options will be.

The distinction between qualitative and quantitative research is very simple and easy to understand.

Quantifying things can be a hard habit to give up.

Quantitative research is often described as...

Qualitative research is often described as...

[blank_start]Case-centric[blank_end] research combines a [blank_start]small[blank_end] number of cases with a large number of variables and values. [blank_start]Variable-centric[blank_end] research examines a small number of variables and values over a [blank_start]large[blank_end] number of cases.

What are students' experiences of the University campus? This is an exmaple of which type of research?

The relationship between gender and safety on campus is an example of which type of research?

Variable-centric research is [blank_start]quantitative[blank_end]. Case-centric research is [blank_start]qualitative[blank_end].

Design strategies for qualitative research includes [blank_start]Naturalistic inquiry[blank_end]: Studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally; Nonmanipulative and noncontrolling; Openness to whatever emerges with a lack of predetermined constraints on findings. [blank_start]Emergent design flexibility[blank_end]: Openness to adapting inquiry as understanding deepens and/or situations change; avoids getting locked into a rigid design that eliminates responsiveness and pursues new paths of discovery as they emerge. [blank_start]Purposeful sampling[blank_end]: Cases for study are selected because they are information rich and illuminative. Sampling is aimed at insight about phenomena, not empirical generalisation from a sample to a population.

Data collection and fieldwork strategies [blank_start]Qualitative data[blank_end]: Observations that yield detailed, thick descriptions; inquiry in depth; interviews that capture direct quotations about personal perspectives and experiences. [blank_start]Personal experience and engagement[blank_end]: Direct contact with and gets close to the people, situation and phenomenon under study; the researchers' personal experiences are an important part of the inquiry and critical to understanding the phenomenon. [blank_start]Empathic neutrality and mindfulness[blank_end]: Seeks vicarious understanding without judgement (neutrality) by showing openness, sensitivity, respect, awareness, and responsiveness. Being fully present. [blank_start]Dynamic systems[blank_end]: Attention to process; assumes change as ongoing whether the focus is on an individual, organisation, community or culture. Mindful of and attentive to system and situation dynamics.

Analysis strategies [blank_start]Unique case orientation[blank_end]: Assumes that each case is special and unique; the first level of analysis is being true to, respecting, and capturing the details of the individual cases being studied; cross-case analysis follows from and depends on the quality of individual case studies. [blank_start]Inductive analysis & creative synthesis[blank_end]: Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important patterns, themes, and interrelationships; begins by exploring, then confirming, guided by analytical principles rather than rules, ends with a creative synthesis. [blank_start]Holistic perspective[blank_end]: The whole phenomenon under study is understood as a complex system that is more than the sum of its parts; focus on complex interdependencies and system dynamics that cannot meaningfully be reduced to a few discrete variables and linear, causeeffect relationships. [blank_start]Context sensitivity[blank_end]: Places findings in a social, historical, and temporal context; careful about, even dubious of, the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and space; emphasizes instead careful comparative case analyses and extrapolating patterns for possible transferability and adaptation in new settings. [blank_start]Voice, perspective, and reflexivity[blank_end]: The qualitative analyst owns and is reflective about her or his own voice and perspective; a credible voice conveys authenticity and trustworthiness; complete objectivity being impossible and pure subjectivity undermining credibility, the researcher’s focus becomes balance—understanding and depicting the world authentically in all its complexity while being self-analytical, politically aware, and reflexive in consciousness

What is Studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally; Nonmanipulative and noncontrolling; Openness to whatever emerges with a lack of predetermined constraints on findings.

What is Openness to adapting inquiry as understanding deepens and/or situations change; avoids getting locked into a rigid design that eliminates responsiveness and pursues new paths of discovery as they emerge.

What is Cases for study are selected because they are information rich and illuminative. Sampling is aimed at insight about phenomena, not empirical generalisation from a sample to a population.

What is Observations that yield detailed, thick descriptions; inquiry in depth; interviews that capture direct quotations about personal perspectives and experiences.

What is Direct contact with and gets close to the people, situation and phenomenon under study; the researchers' personal experiences are an important part of the inquiry and critical to understanding the phenomenon.

What is Seeks vicarious understanding without judgement (neutrality) by showing openness, sensitivity, respect, awareness, and responsiveness. Being fully present.

What is Attention to process; assumes change as ongoing whether the focus is on an individual, organisation, community or culture. Mindful of and attentive to system and situation dynamics.

What is Assumes that each case is special and unique; the first level of analysis is being true to, respecting, and capturing the details of the individual cases being studied; cross-case analysis follows from and depends on the quality of individual case studies.

What is Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important patterns, themes, and interrelationships; begins by exploring, then confirming, guided by analytical principles rather than rules, ends with a creative synthesis.

What is The whole phenomenon under study is understood as a complex system that is more than the sum of its parts; focus on complex interdependencies and system dynamics that cannot meaningfully be reduced to a few discrete variables and linear, causeeffect relationships.

What is Places findings in a social, historical, and temporal context; careful about, even dubious of, the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and space; emphasizes instead careful comparative case analyses and extrapolating patterns for possible transferability and adaptation in new settings.

What is The qualitative analyst owns and is reflective about her or his own voice and perspective; a credible voice conveys authenticity and trustworthiness; complete objectivity being impossible and pure subjectivity undermining credibility, the researcher’s focus becomes balance—understanding and depicting the world authentically in all its complexity while being self-analytical, politically aware, and reflexive in consciousness

Photo elicitation is also called

Social construction of knowledge includes

According to social construction

In quantitative research, the researcher is the instrument

Social constructions are singularly held beliefs?

Do we construct meaning through interactions with others?

It is possible for social constructions to change.

In qualitative research the researcher is the [blank_start]instrument[blank_end].

Reflexivity is the construction of meaning through interactions with others.

Reflexivity is the critical self-evaluation of researcher's positionality.

Reflexivity understands that a researchers positionality [blank_start]may[blank_end] affect the research process and outcome.

[blank_start]Reflexivity[blank_end] is the process of a continual internal dialogue and critical self-evaluation of researcher's positionality as well as active acknowledgement and explicit recognition that this problem may affect the research process and outcome.

Researcher positioning can include which of the following:

Things that are relevant to a researchers positioning for reflexivity is not dependent on the context

A researcher's [blank_start]position[blank_end] is relevant because it can affect access to the 'field', it may shape the nature of the researcher-participant relationship, it may affect the way in which we construct the world, use language, pose questions, choose our frameworks, and how we make meaning of the information we gather.

The position of the researcher may shape the nature of the researcher-participant relationship. However, this will not affect the information that participants are willing to share.

The position of the researcher may affect the way they construct the world which will affect how meaning is made from gathered information.

Reflexivity can be achieved by

Keeping a journal will help with reflexivity

What should be recorded in a journal to assist with reflexivity?

For reflexivity purposes, once a journal entry has been written it should not be reviewed.

[blank_start]Transparent positioning[blank_end] is about being open and clear about a researcher's position.

[blank_start]2.[blank_end] Devising an initial theme for taking pictures [blank_start]4.[blank_end] Selecting photographs for discussion [blank_start]1.[blank_end] Photovoice training [blank_start]6.[blank_end] Codifying issues, themes, theories [blank_start]5.[blank_end] Contextualising and storytelling [blank_start]3.[blank_end] Taking pictures

Photo elicitation studies should be directed, by providing guidance on what and how particiaptns should take photos.

Photo elicitation is...

[blank_start]Photo elicitation[blank_end] provides [blank_start]participants[blank_end] the opportunity to tell tales about their [blank_start]everyday[blank_end] experience

Photo elicitation studies allow access to what some researchers conceptualise as the 'unknown unknowns'. Things that the researcher may not even be aware of when conducting a study.

What are some of the unknown unknowns mentioned in the 'Picture this' study on sexuality and schooling conducted by Lousia Allen?

Reasons given for why photo elicitation studies in schools are unconventional from the 'Picture this' sexualities and schooling study by Lousia Allen include:

Participants are unlikely to take staged or premeditated photos in a photo elicitation study, they are more likely to take opportunistic photos. Answer in reference to the 'Picture this' sexuality and schooling study by Louisa Allen.

Some participants in the 'Picture this' sexuality and schooling study by Louisa Allen were initially uncertain about what photos to capture. This may have been attributable to the way sexuality is both 'everywhere and nowhere' at school.

Researchers are often disappointed on first viewing participant images as they appear mundane and uninteresting.

The following can be/are socially constructed:

Stereotypes are not forms of social construction.

[blank_start]social movements[blank_end] such as [blank_start]civil rights and feminism[blank_end] can in part be seen as [blank_start]collective[blank_end] efforts to change [blank_start]socially constructed ideas[blank_end] about the world.

Examples of social constructions: [blank_start]Language[blank_end]: The word cat, it doesn't look like a cat, but we as a society have decided it represents sounds that make up the word cat. [blank_start]Colours[blank_end]: Pink is for girls, blue is for boys. [blank_start]Food[blank_end]: Eating bacon and eggs for breakfast is western, in Korea vegetable soup for breakfast. Fortune cookies are not a Chinese invention but Japanese, in America Chinese food is served with fortune cookies. [blank_start]Gestures[blank_end]: Thumbs up means good or well done in western society. In Iraq, it means screw you. Discussion around Michelle and Barak Obama fist bumping and what it means, apparaently it can have links to terrorism? [blank_start]People[blank_end]: Women love shopping. American Indians are closer to nature.

A [blank_start]symbol[blank_end] is a thing that stands in for another thing e.g. the USA Flag represents the United States and it's people.

[blank_start]Social constructions[blank_end] are collectively held beliefs where a culture agrees on a meaning. They can be difficult to change. [blank_start]Stereotypes[blank_end] are forms of social constructions.

There is an assumption among researchers that bias or skewedness in a research study is undesireable.

[blank_start]preconceptions[blank_end] are not the same as [blank_start]bias[blank_end], unless the researcher fails to mention them. Different researchers will approach a study from different [blank_start]positions[blank_end] or perspectives. This might lead to different, although equally [blank_start]valid[blank_end], [blank_start]understandings[blank_end] of a particular situation under study. While some may see these different ways of [blank_start]knowing[blank_end] as a [blank_start]reliability[blank_end] problem, others feel that these different ways of seeing provide a [blank_start]richer[blank_end], more developed understanding of [blank_start]complex[blank_end] phenomena. Understanding something about the position, perspective, beliefs and [blank_start]values[blank_end] of the researcher is an issue in all [blank_start]research[blank_end], but particulary in [blank_start]qualitative[blank_end] research where the researcher is often constructed as the [blank_start]human research instrument[blank_end].

One way to foster reflexivity and reflexive research design [blank_start]is to[blank_end] report research perspectives, positions, values and beliefs in manuscripts and other publications. Many believe this is [blank_start]valuable[blank_end] and [blank_start]essential[blank_end] to briefly report in manuscripts, as best as possible, how one's preconceptions, beliefs, values, assumptions and position may have come into play during the research process.

Fostering reflexivity and good reflexive design includes only one researcher.

A journal is a good way to foster reflexivity and encourage good reflexive research design.

We construct meaning through interactions with others when

[blank_start]Collectively[blank_end] held beliefs are an idea or notion that appears to be [blank_start]natural and obvious[blank_end] to people who [blank_start]accept[blank_end] it (war, beneficiaries, beauty). However, if they can be [blank_start]constructed[blank_end], they can be [blank_start]deconstructed[blank_end] (i.e. the term queer is now a matter of pride).

[blank_start]Positivist/experimental/quantitative[blank_end] research does tend to take a view that there is a single objective reality that exists “out there”. Technical competence of the researcher is all that matters. [blank_start]Social construction/critical psychology[blank_end]: There are multiple socially constructed realities. I.e. 9/11 world trade centre, compared to a battery factory in India exploded where 5000 people died. Or the Alleppey Junta regime (1973). Research shaped by culture, class, gender, life experience of the researcher.

In qualitative research, the researcher is the [blank_start]instrument[blank_end]. [blank_start]Reflexivity[blank_end] the process of a continual internal dialogue and critical self-evaluation of the researcher’s positionality. Position in the field: Insiders or Outsiders. [blank_start]Insiders[blank_end] are generally favoured and don't have to make participants at ease. i.e. for tightly knit or religious communities. [blank_start]Outsiders[blank_end] can be good as they may have an objective view but have to get participants to feel at ease.