S/P Psych Lecture/Tute Qs

Question

Consequences of social and self categorization include:

Answer 1

Change the way that ambiguous behavior is interpreted

Answer 2

Structural consequences Category differentiation model (Doise, 1978): Intergroup differentiation

Answer 3

Outgroup homogeneity

Answer 4

Explanatory consequences Explaining ingroup and outgroup behaviour Attribution: explaining other people’s behavior (esp. in relation to causes) via situational behavior and dispositional behavior.

Answer 5

Ingroup favoritism: prejudice

Answer 6

All these answers are correct

Answer 7

Attempts to understand the self and the social world with an emphasis on how stable individual differences influence behavior, thought and feeling

Answer 8

Attempts to understand the self and the social world with an emphasis on how the situation shapes behavior, thought and feeling

Answer 9

Person vs. situation E.g., conflict

Answer 10

Broad discipline with fuzzy boundaries: Blend into other areas (biological, cognitive, developmental…)

Answer 11

 The signature moral response (SMR):  Serious, wrong, bad  Punishable  Authority independent (wrong regardless of authority claims)  General in scope (universal)  Appeals to harm

Answer 12

The key distinguishing feature of stimulus: harm or welfare (also rights and justice)

Answer 13

 Less serious, less wrong, less bad  Less punishable  Authority dependent  Local in scope No appeals to harm

Answer 14

None of these answers are correct

Answer 15

Shweder et al. (1997) ) Looked at other concepts/key terms that occurred with morality eg. right and wrong, good and bad, associated concepts in everyday language. Proposed 3 Domains of Ethics

Answer 16

Moral Foundations Theory (Haidt & Graham, 2004, 2007)

Answer 17

 Between-culture differences  WEIRD – Western. Educated. Industrialized. Rich. Democratic.  Moralize harm/care and fairness/reciprocity  NON-WEIRD (Not Western)  Moralize all five domains, loyalty, authority respect  Within-culture differences SocioEconomicStatus differences: SES Increase, community and purity domains decrease.

Answer 18

all of the above are correct

Answer 19

Run experiments to uncover empirical regularities or facts about moral judgment and behaviour with an aim to uncovering psychological mechanisms underlying moral judgment and behavior, with a naturalized approach (no supernatural), base explanations in biology.

Answer 20

not endorsing, just exploring phenomena and the processes involved

Answer 21

response-dependent: what counts as moral is that set of phenomena to which people have ‘moral’ responses

Answer 22

All these answers are correct

Answer 23

Social Intuitionist Model (SIM; Haidt, 2001) supports arguments for reasoning MJ

Answer 24

Social Intuitionist Model (SIM; Haidt, 2001) supports arguments for emorional/intuitive MJ

Answer 25

 Dual process model: revised Competition Theory (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)  Both in the moral black box and they often conflict  What drives moral judgment is a of function properties of the stimuli (e.g., personal vs. impersonal) as well as situational factors (e.g., mood) and individual differences  Emotion drives deontological reactions, reasoning drives utilitarian responses and the competition between these two processes informs moral judgment

Answer 26

Social Intuitionist Model (SIM; Haidt, 2001) supports arguments for emorional/intuitive MJ, and Dual process model: revised Competition Theory (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)  Both in the moral black box and they often conflict  What drives moral judgment is a of function properties of the stimuli (e.g., personal vs. impersonal) as well as situational factors (e.g., mood) and individual differences  Emotion drives deontological reactions, reasoning drives utilitarian responses and the competition between these two processes informs moral judgment

Answer 27

conscious mental activity that consists of transforming given information about people in order to reach a moral judgment. To say that moral reasoning is a conscious process means that the process is intentional, effortful, and controllable and that the reasoner is aware that it is going on and sudden appearance in consciousness of a moral judgment, including an affective valence (good-bad, like-dislike), without any conscious awareness of having gone through steps of searching, weighing evidence, or inferring a conclusion. Moral intuitions are largely dependent on emotions

Answer 28

sudden appearance in consciousness of a moral judgment, including an affective valence (good-bad, like-dislike), without any conscious awareness of having gone through steps of searching, weighing evidence, or inferring a conclusion. Moral intuitions are largely dependent on emotions and conscious mental activity that consists of transforming given information about people in order to reach a moral judgment. To say that moral reasoning is a conscious process means that the process is intentional, effortful, and controllable and that the reasoner is aware that it is going on

Answer 29

(Reason, reasoning, rationality) vs. (emotion, intuition, gut feeling)

Answer 30

All are correct

Answer 31

D  Individual differences  Need for cognition: high – central; low – peripheral

Answer 32

C Situational  Mood: happy – peripheral; sad – central  Importance to self: important – central; unimportant – peripheral

Answer 33

 B Peripheral (heuristic) route: taken when people are unwilling or unable to think carefully about message content

Answer 34

 A Central (systematic) route: taken when people are motivated and capable of thinking carefully about message content

Answer 35

Reasoning and rational processing of MJ

Answer 36

Different ages people will engage with these concepts using different concepts. Young children will use obedience/punishment, individualism and exchange, then social order. When people see a stimulus, people use different, varied, deliberate, conscious, logical, moral reasoning according to a set of social rules to conjure a judgement  Stages:  obedience/punishment,  individualism/exchange,  roles,  social order,  individual rights,  universal principles  Emphasis on consciously accessible rules that were applied at the time of judgment.  Stimulus – reasoning – judgment

Answer 37

 Dual process model: revised Competition Theory (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)  Both in the moral black box and they often conflict

Answer 38

All these answers are correct

Answer 39

don’t need rich cultural contexts to engage in categorization

Answer 40

Us vs. them categorization happens under any social conditions

Answer 41

Tajfel et al (1971): Schoolchildren do a Point allocation task: Klee or Kandinsky paintings- no association b/w preferences and allotted group they were told they belong too, a label. Intergroup discrimination occurred despite random categorization. Mere categorization (based on minimal group conditions) elicited ingroup favoritism This study's hypothesis were supported

Answer 42

All these answers are correct

Answer 43

This is known as Competition Theory Greene et al. (2001, 2004).  Each problem pits a deontological option (what is “good” is based on the rule: do not kill innocents) against a utilitarian option (greatest good for greatest number)  Deontological response driven by gut-reactions, emotion, intuition  Utilitarian response driven by controlled, effortful reasoning processes

Answer 44

 Dual process model (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)  Both in the moral black box and they often conflict  What drives moral judgment is a of function properties of the stimuli (e.g., personal vs. impersonal) as well as situational factors (e.g., mood) and individual differences  Emotion drives deontological reactions, reasoning drives utilitarian responses and the competition between these two processes informs moral judgment

Answer 45

Other factors that influence moral judgement beyond emotion and reasoning: Decision framing (how you word the moral story (e.g., Petrinovich & O’Neill, 1996)

Answer 46

Greene et al (2001) Competition Theory and the revised version are correct

Answer 47

Standardised metric quantifying degree and direction of linear relationship between two numeric variables (i.e., X and Y)

Answer 48

As how 1 variable causes another

Answer 49

How two variables can be present in different contexts

Answer 50

None of the above

Answer 51

One of the most frequently used statistics – Important to be able to interpret it correctly

Answer 52

Fundamental to theory building in psychology – and outside of psychology as well!

Answer 53

It helps determine when 2 variables of interest are associated with each other

Answer 54

All of these answers are correct

Answer 55

arousal and performance

Answer 56

intensity of signal and probability of detection

Answer 57

frequency of tap drip and ability to concentrate

Answer 58

All these are true examples

Answer 59

Homoscedasticity In statistics, a sequence or a vector of random variables is homoscedastic if all random variables in the sequence or vector have the same finite variance. This is also known as homogeneity of variance

Answer 60

scatterplot of residuals against predicted values to check for heteroscedasticity. • Absence of any systematic pattern supports the assumption of homoscedasticity

Answer 61

None of these answers are correct

Answer 62

Both these answer are correct

Answer 63

To create boundaries/definitions between communities and cultures

Answer 64

To classify parameters such as age and SES

Answer 65

To classify participants in studies

Answer 66

None of these answers are correct: it's used to navigate/orient ourselves in the world, effort minimizing, pressed for time, communicative

Answer 67

The null hypothesis for correlation is: The correlation in the population is zero. 1 If the probability associated with this null hypothesis is small (p < .05), then we reject the null hypothesis.

Answer 68

2 So, we infer that the correlation value for the population is NOT zero

Answer 69

3 There is a significant association between the two variables

Answer 70

None of these steps are in order

Answer 71

These steps are in order

Answer 72

every change in the X variable is accompanied by a corresponding change in the Y variable

Answer 73

With some research questions, correlations of .05 can be large With others, correlations as high as .6 or .8 can be low

Answer 74

Correlations range from -1 to +1

Answer 75

All these answers are true

Answer 76

• Y = a + bX + e l a is the intercept parameter (sometimes called the constant) l b is the slope parameter l e is an error or residual term. l Errors are assumed to be: – Independent – Normally distributed

Answer 77

» Normally distributed with a mean of 0 – Homoscedastic » Equal error variance for levels of predicted Y

Answer 78

• Y = a + bX + e l a is the intercept parameter (sometimes called the constant) l b is the slope parameter l e is an error or residual term.

Answer 79

All of the above are correct

Answer 80

Outgroup compliance is less than ingroup

Answer 81

a group tendency in behaviour, belief etc. These perceptions of what others do or think we should do influence our behavior in powerful ways

Answer 82

Have conformity/rebellious in mind, impact own conformity during a task

Answer 83

None of these answers are true

Answer 84

It compares how much the two variables vary together compared with how much they vary seperately

Answer 85

Extreme scores or outliers can greatly influence value of correlation.

Answer 86

r = Covariability of X / Variability of X and Y Separately

Answer 87

All these answers are true

Answer 88

There is no difference

Answer 89

Y = a + bx + e is observed Y ascore (acual data) whereas Yˆ = a + bx is precicted Y score

Answer 90

Y = a + bx + e is precicted Y score Yˆ = a + bx is observed, actual Y score

Answer 91

They are used in univariate or bivariate data

Answer 92

Those individuals with greater chances of survival and reproductive success (due to the possession of adaptive traits

Answer 93

offspring will tend to resemble their parents (i.e. inherit their traits).Thus certain adaptive traits are selected for.

Answer 94

These adaptive traits increase in frequency in future generations, thus coming to be widespread within a species.

Answer 95

All these answers are true

Answer 96

Individual differences: Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA): Tendency to submit to established authorities and adhere to social conventions Social Dominance Orientation (SDO): desire to promote intergroup hierarchies (egalitarianism is bad as promotes equal authority) and for one’s in-groups to dominate their out-groups

Answer 97

Competition Realistic Conflict Theory (LeVine & Campbell, 1972): intergroup hostility arises from competition among groups for scarce (and thus valued) material resources. Intergroup bias goes up when survival is tough.

Answer 98

Intergroup Threat: Integrated Threat Theory (Stephan & Stephan, 1985) Realistic threat: threats to the material well-being of the ingroup, such as their economic benefits, political power, and health (from another outgroup) Symbolic threat: threats to the ingroup’s system of values-immigrant rhetoric Intergroup anxiety: feelings of anxiety people experience during intergroup interactions associated with negative outcomes for the self (embarrassed, rejected, ridiculed)

Answer 99

All these answers are correct

Answer 100

All of these answers are true

Answer 101

If we know two variables are related (correlation) we can use this knowledge to make predictions about behaviour.

Answer 102

A linear relationship between two variables

Answer 103

Regression model Y = a + b X + (error)

Answer 104

To keep social order

Answer 105

 Normative influence: going along to fit in/connect/belong (often only public/surface)  Informational influence: going along to be accurate (often private/deep)

Answer 106

To navigate the world, for surivival

Answer 107

None of these answers are true

Answer 108

Extreme scores are often (but not always) due to chance

Answer 109

If it’s due to chance, it’s extremely unlikely that the other value will also be extreme

Answer 110

Both these are correct

Answer 111

– Tool for understanding the world and developing psychological theory – About explaining variability – About generalising from a set of observations to the broader population

Answer 112

• Aim is to improve experimental design and analyses

Answer 113

• Training you to bridge the research and applied world – Critically evaluate existing research – Conduct and report your own research – Build a more sophisticated understanding of reality, which can then be applied to helping others

Answer 114

All answers are true

Answer 115

Intercept (a) Estimated value of Y when X = 0. May or may not be a meaningful quantity

Answer 116

Slope (b) indicates: - whether there is a relationship between X and Y - whether that relationship is positive or negative (cf correlation) - estimate of expected change in Y when X increases by 1 Slope can be translated into standardised form convert X and Y into z-scores and then do the regression standardised regression coefficient (called beta in SPSS.) compare with correlation coefficient for bivariate data Can also have confidence intervals for regression coefficients

Answer 117

None of these answers are correct

Answer 118

All of these answers are correct

Answer 119

Attitudes can guide behaviour without much thought

Answer 120

Attitudes can guide behaviour through considered intentions

Answer 121

Attitudes can guide behaviour in relation to self presentation/norms

Answer 122

All answers are true

Answer 123

The F test tells us whether the variance explained is significantly different from zero.

Answer 124

If the F test is not significant, the regression is worthless. The predictor does not explain the outcome variable at all.

Answer 125

There is no relationship

Answer 126

The two details are correct

Answer 127

 Based on Hamilton’s rule, one is more likely to perform altruistic act X (with fixed cost C and fixed benefit B) For kin than non-kin

Answer 128

 rB > C  r=degree of genetic relatedness; B=benefit to recipient; C=cost to helper.

Answer 129

All of these answers are true

Answer 130

None of these answers are true

Answer 131

: altruism for non-kin can evolve as long as such altruism is reciprocated (either at the time or at some later date)

Answer 132

both helper and recipient benefit

Answer 133

Social contract theory (Cosmides & Tooby, 1992) (Detecting cheats)  Reciprocal altruism can evolve if it is protected from cheaters  Evolved cheater detection systems: recognition of individuals, memory for interaction histories, communication of one’s values, model others’ values, represent costs and benefits

Answer 134

All answers are true

Answer 135

Attitude Accessibility: To influence behaviour, the “right” attitude must be accessible. Those who are low in self-monitoring have more accessible attitudes. Attitudes can become aware deliberately - reminding people to think about their attitudes. Self-awareness makes attitudes more accessible. Attitudes can become accessible automatically.

Answer 136

Attitude Compatibility: Specific attitudes influence specific behaviours.

Answer 137

Personal Control: If we believe we can control our behaviour, attitudes have a big influence. When we believe our behaviour is not under our personal control, attitudes have little influence.

Answer 138

All answers are correct

Answer 139

Social Identity Theory (SIT) People prefer to have a positive self-concept, boost positive self-esteem. Personal identity (attributes of you as an individual) and social identity (those parts of the self-concept derived from our knowledge and feelings about our ingroups).

Answer 140

Self-categorization theory: Categorize ourselves as group members Such self-categorization leads to depersonalization, assimilation (behavior) to ingroup norms, and self-stereotyping

Answer 141

Social categorization: the placement of individuals into a class of similar individuals, often based on features such as gender, ethnicity, nationality…Primitives: age, gender, race (contested): we can’t help but categorize people. Other salient groups apply

Answer 142

All of these answers are correct

Answer 143

 Descriptive norm influenced behavior

Answer 144

 Cross-norm inhibition: norm-adherence inhibited or undermined by violations of other norms (break one rule, break many)

Answer 145

None of the above

Answer 146

All of the above

Answer 147

Social categorization can automatically activate information consistent with the ST

Answer 148

Stereotyping: process of viewing an individual in light of a stereotype, draw upon group stereotype to understand individual

Answer 149

expectancies about a social group (probable behaviors, traits, features) can be positive or negative (cf. prejudice- judging negative)

Answer 150

All these answers are correct

Answer 151

People prefer to have a positive self-concept, boost positive self-esteem Our selves are composed of personal (individual) and group-related identities: Personal identity (attributes of you as an individual) and social identity (those parts of the self-concept derived from our knowledge and feelings about our ingroups). See ingroup identity a more positive relative to outgroup identity to boost self-esteem.

Answer 152

Intergroup differentiation ; Within group homogeneity (especially for outgroups)

Answer 153

Cross-race identification bias (Other race effect- they all look/think the same)

Answer 154

All these answers are correct:

Answer 155

surface conformality

Answer 156

Mirror Neuron activity

Answer 157

Perception and behaviour links

Answer 158

All of these answers

Answer 159

Extended contact: knowledge that other ingroup members have outgroup friends can reduce intergroup bias

Answer 160

Intergroup contact: The more contact one has with an outgroup, the less prejudice one expresses

Answer 161

Individual differences (the good kind): fostering positive individual differences: “building character”

Answer 162

All these answers are correct

Answer 163

Changing categorization: Change the cognitive representation of outgroup members so it is no longer simply us vs. them

Answer 164

Promoting cooperation:

Answer 165

All answers are correct

Answer 166

Organize and guide the processing of self-related information that are part of the individual’s social experience.

Answer 167

Are derived from past experience.

Answer 168

Are cognitive generalizations about the self

Answer 169

None of these things

Answer 170

All of these things

Answer 171

Authority pushes people to do things

Answer 172

 Punishment in learning

Answer 173

 Convergence: Authority pushes people to do things

Answer 174

Cultural norms change overtime, but we are always influenced by norms

Answer 175

people look to others in uncertain circumstance, use other peopl’es information to secure reality

Answer 176

None of these answers are true

Answer 177

 Self-confidence decrease  Task difficulty increase  Stereotypes…

Answer 178

 Group cohesion increase  Group size (but with a plateau of about 30-35% conformity at n = 3)  Social support for deviant position decrease

Answer 179

All of these answers are true

Answer 180

None of these answers are true

Answer 181

All these answers are correct

Answer 182

Commitment

Answer 183

Reciprocity

Answer 184

All answers are correct

Answer 185

 Naturalistic fallacy

Answer 186

Genetic determinism  No nurture

Answer 187

Reductionism

Answer 188

B and C are correct

Answer 189

A Three primitives – sex, age, “race”

Answer 190

 B Us vs. them thinking

Answer 191

C Age and sex make sense from ev. perspective, but race does not. Race is not a factor in the EEA

Answer 192

All answers are true

Answer 193

If such patterns are correlated with physical features, these features would come to serve as cues in the coalition detection system (e.g., dress, gait, dialect)

Answer 194

 By-product of alliance/coalition detection

Answer 195

lived in bands and often formed coalitions within bands. Moreover, neighboring bands often came into contact/conflict. These alliances needed to be tracked.

Answer 196

Factors influencing attitude change in the Central route include:  Present participants with weak or strong arguments  Some participants were highly involved; others not  argument quality matters

Answer 197

 Factors influencing attitude change in the Peripheral route include:  Source expertise  Source attractiveness

Answer 198

Neither of these answers are correct: reverse them

Answer 199

These answers are correct

Answer 200

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Answer 201

Go/No-Go Association Task (GNAT)

Answer 202

Attitudes can also be inferred from observing behaviour.

Answer 203

All answers are correct

Answer 204

Implicit attitudes are thought to reflect more automatic, less controlled evaluations

Answer 205

Explicit attitudes are thought to reflect conscious thoughts and considered reactions to the object.

Answer 206

Explicit attitudes predict controlled behaviour.

Answer 207

Implicit attitudes predict more spontaneous behaviour.

Answer 208

All answers are correct

Answer 209

 Affiliation goal (desire to connect) and attempting to reconnect  Group membership: ingroup > outgroup   Group cohesion increase  Power: powerless > powerful  Mood: good > bad 

Answer 210

 Self-confidence decrease  Task difficulty increase  Stereotypes…

Answer 211

 Group cohesion increase  Group size (but with a plateau of about 30-35% conformity at n = 3)  Social support for deviant position decrease

Answer 212

None of these answers

Answer 213

Domain specific

Answer 214

Composed of collection of evolved psychological mechanisms (modules)

Answer 215

All these answers are true

Answer 216

Adaptations

Answer 217

Guttman scales:

Answer 218

Likert scales

Answer 219

Semantic Differentials

Answer 220

All answers are correct

Answer 221

All these answers are true

Answer 222

 Cognitive revolution

Answer 223

Standard Social Science Model (SSSM) Blank slate written on by experience

Answer 224

Behaviorism

Answer 225

Complexity: The number of elements in the attitude.

Answer 226

Strength: Certainty or probability – how strong the attitude is.

Answer 227

Valence: Evaluation – whether the attitude object is viewed positively or negatively

Answer 228

All answers are correct

Answer 229

Material and social self-seeking involve things, such as proving for our needs, and social things, such as being friendly, curious, and emulating others.

Answer 230

Spiritual self-seeking involves “every impulse towards psychic progress”, including intellectual, moral, and spiritual pursuits in the narrow sense.

Answer 231

All answers are true

Answer 232

Neither answer is true

Answer 233

All these answers are correct

Answer 234

Kin selection

Answer 235

Mate choice

Answer 236

 Morality

Answer 237

Explicit is self aware, reporting

Answer 238

Implicit involves subconscious, unaware, detailed

Answer 239

None of these answers are true

Answer 240

All of these answers are true

Answer 241

 Functions of conformity: informational, normative  Conformity also communicates something to others: agreeableness

Answer 242

Non-conformity also serves as a signal: uniqueness, independence

Answer 243

Both answers are true

Answer 244

None of these answers are true

Answer 245

Affective component – liking or feelings about the attitude object.

Answer 246

Behavioural component – how we behave toward the attitude object.

Answer 247

Cognitive component – our thoughts and beliefs about the attitude object.

Answer 248

All answers are correct

Answer 249

Self-improvement: Desire to improve a particular aspect of the self. Elicited by circumstances involve past threat or failure

Answer 250

Self-verification: Desire for consistency in self knowledge. Elicited by circumstances which involve failure.

Answer 251

Self-enhancement: Desire to achieve and maintain a positive sense of self. Elicited by circumstances involving both success and failure, especially when the particular self-view is important.

Answer 252

Self-assessment: Desire to have accurate information about the self. Elicited by circumstances involving both success and failure, especially when knowledge of one’s ability is uncertain.

Answer 253

All answers are true

Answer 254

All these answers are correct

Answer 255

When a potential partner is like one’s ought self, we interpret this as “this person is how I should to be”.

Answer 256

When a potential partner is like one’s ideal self, we interpret this as “this person is how I would like to be”.

Answer 257

When one’s own and a potential partner’s actual selves are similar (or commensurable), we interpret this as “this person is like me”.

Answer 258

 How valid are self-report assessments of personality

Answer 259

 Are traits or situations more useful for predicting behaviour

Answer 260

But much of our personality is highly contextualised, and shared a consensus but not an objective proof

Answer 261

All these answers are true

Answer 262

Due to the Parental investment theory (Trivers, 1972): the sex that invests most in the offspring (usually the female) will be more selective

Answer 263

Ancestors who had an aversion to incest had greater reproductive fitness (produced more viable offspring)

Answer 264

Both answers are true

Answer 265

None of these answers are true

Answer 266

The Ego - aspect of self that actively experiences the world. The stream of consciousness that gives us our sense of personal identity. “It is the sense of a sameness perceived by thought and predicated of things thought-about.”

Answer 267

The Me - aspect of self that is the object of attention.

Answer 268

Neither answer is true

Answer 269

Both answers are true

Answer 270

Theory of Reasoned Action, Ajzen specified that attitudes should be assessed by taking the product of two factors

Answer 271

Behavioural Beliefs: Behavioural beliefs are the beliefs about the outcomes associated with the attitude object.

Answer 272

Outcome evaluations: Outcome Evaluations are the evaluations of the outcomes associated with the attitude object.

Answer 273

All answers are correct

Answer 274

Self-reference leads to deeper processing which is superior to semantic processing.

Answer 275

linear trend with self-reference processing requiring longer times

Answer 276

Superiority of “yes” words supports schema – “yes” fit with schema whereas “no” do not

Answer 277

All answers are true

Answer 278

All answers are correct

Answer 279

Promotion and prevention failure along with higher assessment are associated with higher levels of vulnerable narcissism

Answer 280

Assessment – the tendency to assess the self, others, and different options for action.

Answer 281

Locomotion – the tendency to move between state to state.

Answer 282

All answers are true

Answer 283

Form stronger intentions to conform to a persuasive message and are more persuaded by the message (Ceasario et al., 2004).

Answer 284

Feel more guilty about their past behaviour – a negative not positive event (Camancho et al., 2003).

Answer 285

Anticipate more enjoyment from the task

Answer 286

Self-regulation is the tendency to change the self with respect to some reference value or goal (may involve maintaining a present state or striving to achieve a desired future state

Answer 287

Self-regulatory models assume that individuals are motivated to approach desired end-states

Answer 288

Both answers are true

Answer 289

Neither answer is true

Answer 290

Both answers are correct

Answer 291

Neither answer is correct

Answer 292

Suggests that self-enhancement is stronger than self-verification motive.

Answer 293

Consistent with self-enhancement model, there was a preference for diagnostic information for positive central traits.

Answer 294

Regulatory Focus

Answer 295

Regulatory Reference

Answer 296

Regulatory Anticipation

Answer 297

All answers are true

Answer 298

In terms of a prevention-framed goal, success is viewed as the avoidance of an undesired end-state) and failure is experienced when one does not avoid it.

Answer 299

For a promotion-framed goal, success is experienced as achieving a desired end-state and failure is experienced as a failure to achieve it.

Answer 300

Both answers are true

Answer 301

Neither answer is true

Answer 302

The spiritual self - all things that are not tangible that carry the designation my or mine - attributes or abilities, pleasure and pain. To think about ourselves as thinkers.

Answer 303

The social self - how we are regarded and recognized by others. We have as many social selves as people who recognize us.

Answer 304

The material self - all tangible objects, people, or places that carry the designation my or mine.

Answer 305

All answers are true

Answer 306

Informational

Answer 307

Instrumental

Answer 308

All of the above

Answer 309

Commitment – deciding about and maintaining love.

Answer 310

Passion – romance, physical, and sexual attraction.

Answer 311

Intimacy – feeling close, connected, and bonded.

Answer 312

All answers are correct

Answer 313

 Differential reproduction  Some characteristics will lead to greater survival or reproduction

Answer 314

 Genetic inheritance  Characteristics must be passed down from parents to offspring through genes.

Answer 315

 Variation  For evolved biological changes to occur, variation in a characteristic must exist (otherwise there is no source of change).

Answer 316

All of these answers are correct

Answer 317

The ‘Growth Story’ Personal development, or ‘becoming’ as a central theme

Answer 318

Redemption Sequences’ Significant episodes whose form goes from worse to better (overcoming adversity, undergoing a transformation etc)

Answer 319

Both these answers are true

Answer 320

Neither of these answers are true

Answer 321

 1) Resources vary in their availability over time and space

Answer 322

 2) Fitness maximisation is not a ‘one-shot game’  - long vs. short-term strategies

Answer 323

 3) Trade-offs must be made: Trade-offs are influenced by varying individual and environmental circumstances.  Thorough exploring increases likelihood of finding high quality resources, but delays reproduction

Answer 324

All answers are correct

Answer 325

goals, and values tend to be related to interdependence in collectivist cultures and with independence in individualistic cultures (Markus & Kitayama, 1991)

Answer 326

 e.g., timing and content of social roles varies across culture and social context  e.g., caregiver role construal… (Friedlmeier et al., 2008)

Answer 327

 e.g., personal narratives draw on the stories and metaphors that are salient in our culture

Answer 328

All of these answers are correct

Answer 329

Shared attitudes suggest mutual attraction. If I like someone and they like the same things as me, I can infer that they will like me too

Answer 330

when we learn that someone has the same attitudes and beliefs as us, it feels good as it suggests we have sound judgment.

Answer 331

Both answers are true

Answer 332

Neither answer is true

Answer 333

Environmental variance (i.e., ‘nurture’): influence of experiences  Shared variance: environmental influences that are common to the individuals being studied  Nonshared variance: environmental influences that differ across the individuals being studied

Answer 334

Genetic variance or ‘heritability’ (i.e., ‘nature’): influence of genes inherited from biological parents

Answer 335

Neither answers are correct

Answer 336

Both answers are correct

Answer 337

Caregiver responsiveness largely determines the quality of attachment relationships.

Answer 338

Working models tend to be stable across the lifecycle

Answer 339

A “deterministic” view of development.

Answer 340

All answers are correct

Answer 341

Affective Individuals emotions are influenced by and influence their partner’s emotions.

Answer 342

Behavioural Individual’s behaviour is influenced by and influences their partner’s behaviour.

Answer 343

Cognitive Thinking about the self and partner as inextricably linked, as part of a whole rather than separate individuals.

Answer 344

All answers are correct

Answer 345

Reciprocity via Rewards: We like others who reinforce our behaviour (at the beginning of relationships, costs are discounted … but not later on!).

Answer 346

Reciprocity via Good Moods: We infer liking from our mood states.

Answer 347

Direct reciprocity: We like others who like us . Social approval – being positively evaluated is intrinsically rewarding. Correlations between mutual liking are around .5 (which is substantial).

Answer 348

All answers are true

Answer 349

concerns an individuals particular life circumstances highly contextualised

Answer 350

Relatively stable goals, interpretations, and strategies, specified in relation to an individual’s particular life circumstances

Answer 351

Motivational, social-cognitive, and developmental adaptations, contextualized in time, place, and/or social role

Answer 352

All of these answers are correct

Answer 353

Frequency-dependent selection: If all your neighbours are pursuing one strategy it may pay to pursue another, explain traits

Answer 354

Environmental heterogeneity (‘niches’)

Answer 355

Antagonistic pleiotropy (fitness trade-offs)

Answer 356

All of these answers are correct

Answer 357

Interpersonal responses

Answer 358

Emotional responses

Answer 359

Responses to achievement settings

Answer 360

All answers are true

Answer 361

 Parenting- Serious problems:  Causal ambiguity: (e.g., childhood introversion may elicit overprotective parenting)  Genetic confounding: (e.g., behaviour of the parents and the child may be influenced by common genetics)

Answer 362

 Birth order-Large multinational samples that control for these confounds find no relation between birth order and personality

Answer 363

 Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977)  Behaviour is learned via the examples of others, as well as via direct rewards/punishments. The ‘bobo doll’ study of aggression

Answer 364

All answers are correct

Answer 365

Genetic variance or ‘heritability’ (i.e., ‘nature’): influence of genes inherited from biological parents

Answer 366

Environmental variance (i.e., ‘nurture’): influence of experiences  Shared variance: environmental influences that are common to the individuals being studied  Nonshared variance: environmental influences that differ across the individuals being studied

Answer 367

Neither answer is correct

Answer 368

All answers are correct

Answer 369

The market pricing model in which relationships are organized to a common scale of ratio values such as money.

Answer 370

The equality matching model in which relationships are organized with reference to their degree of balance.

Answer 371

The authority ranking model organizes relationships in asymmetrical terms. Individuals are hierarchically organized with higher-ranked individuals having the authority to organize, dominate etc.

Answer 372

The communal sharing model which organizes relationships in terms of collective belonging or sharing

Answer 373

All of the above

Answer 374

Fiske proposed that relationships based on one model would be rare and that all relationships to some degree would be described by the models.

Answer 375

Close relationships were described more by the communal sharing model than acquaintance relationships

Answer 376

Relationships with close friends were also described by the equality matching model, whereas equality matching and market pricing models described relationships with acquaintances.

Answer 377

All of the above

Answer 378

We like people we meet often.

Answer 379

All answers are correct

Answer 380

Physical proximity is also important.

Answer 381

the sheer frequency of encountering a neutral or positive stimulus enhances its evaluation.

Answer 382

Equity Theory(Walster, Walster, & Berscheid, 1978): According to this model, relationships are perceived to be fair if each persons’ outcomes are proportional to their contributions. Receiving less or more than one contributes results in lower satisfaction, although receiving less is worse than receiving more

Answer 383

Interdependence TheoryThibaut & Kelly (1959): Individuals are motivated to maximize rewards relative to costs in relationships. Satisfaction and attraction are defined in terms of expectations and outcomes. Individuals compare relationship outcomes to two standards – the comparison level (CL) and the comparison level for alternatives (CLalt). The comparison levels are determined either using others’ relationships or past relationships. The CL is the standard against which the attractiveness of the relationship is evaluated. When the level of outcomes exceeds this, the individual is satisfied with the relationship. The CLalt is the standard used to determine whether to stay or leave the relationship. If an alternative is not available (this may include no relationship), the individual may continue in the relationship.

Answer 384

Investment Model(Rusbult, 1980): The Investment Model is an extension of Interdependence Theory which includes relationship commitment and investments. Commitment is a function of high satisfaction, few alternatives, and high investment. Satisfaction is a function of rewards minus costs. Alternatives are the perceived desirability of other relationships.

Answer 385

Ideal Standards Model(Simpson, Fletcher, & Campbell, 2001): The ideal standards model is an extension of Interdependence theory and Self-discrepancy theory. Partner and relationship ideals are chronically-accessible knowledge structures that influence relationship judgments. These standards have three functions: evaluation, explanation, and regulation. Larger discrepancies between perceptions of a partner or the relationships with these standards results in lower evaluations of the partner and the relationship.

Answer 386

Attatchment Theory: This is a psychological, evolutionary, and ethological theory that provides a descriptive framework for understanding interpersonal relationships. Begins with the premise that infants have a need for a secure relationship with adult caregivers. The relevant infant behaviour is primarily a process of seeking proximity with an identified attachment figure.

Answer 387

All of these answers are correct

Answer 388

Clear behavioural expectations

Answer 389

Individual ability to meet the demands of the situation

Answer 390

Incentives for compliance (or threats for non-compliance)

Answer 391

All answers are correct

Answer 392

Moreover, both male and female physical violence was highest in couples where a male partner had high attachment avoidance paired with a female partner with high attachment anxiety.

Answer 393

Male violence predicted female violence.

Answer 394

Female attachment anxiety predicted violence.

Answer 395

All answers are correct

Answer 396

Although romantic partners and male friends’ physical attractiveness are correlated (r =.48 & .38), female partners’ attractiveness doesn't correlate (r = .00) (Feingold, 1988).

Answer 397

People who conform to gender roles, care more about physical attractiveness (Andersen & Bem, 1981).

Answer 398

People prefer good companions, considerate, honest, affectionate, dependable, intelligent, kind, understanding, interesting, and loyal long-term mates (Buss & Barnes, 1986).

Answer 399

All of the answers are correct

Answer 400

Mischel (1968) argued that behaviour on one occasion was unrelated to behaviour on a second occasion; therefore personality cannot exist

Answer 401

Shweder (1975): “The Conceptual Similarity Critique”  “How people classify” is mistaken as “how to classify people” Coherence of personality traits (discovered by factor analysis [week 10]) simply reflect judgements of conceptual similarity

Answer 402

The Fundamental Attribution Error” (also called “correspondance bias”; Gilbert & Malone, 1995). People mistakenly explain behaviour in terms of dispositional factors rather than to situational factors

Answer 403

All answers are correct

Answer 404

All answers are correct

Answer 405

1. Situational selection:  Where traits predict entering a strong or consequential situation  e.g., extraversion and accidents

Answer 406

2. Situational evocation:  Where traits impact on the dynamics of a particular situation  e.g., traits (e.g., low agreeableness)  relationship quality  divorce

Answer 407

3. Situational perception:  Where traits shape appraisals of a situation, and thus an individual’s experience of that situation, e.g.,  agreeableness  opportunities to cooperate;  neuroticism  negativity and frustrations;  openness/intellect  intellectually engaging

Answer 408

All answers are correct

Answer 409

 Focus of content analyses:  Tone (Positive/optimistic/utopian, negative/pessimistic/dystopian)  Themes (Preoccupations with certain problems, goals etc)  Form (Stability? Change? Slow vs. rapid progress? Inertia?)

Answer 410

The unity and purpose of the self: A ‘personal myth’

Answer 411

Narrative Identity: The internal, dynamic life story that an individual constructs to make sense of his or her life

Answer 412

All answers are correct

Answer 413

 Subjectivity:  Different people reach a different reduced set of Allport & Odbert’s descriptors

Answer 414

 (Poor) Replicability / Reproducibility:  Using Cattell’s 171 personality descriptors, many people failed to obtain his same 16 factors

Answer 415

 Redundancy:  Many of his factors correlated too highly for them to really be ‘different’ traits

Answer 416

All of these answers are correct

Answer 417

All these answers are correct

Answer 418

 Personality has a developmental trajectory, but in relative terms remains fairly stable

Answer 419

Mean level stability is relatively low

Answer 420

All answers are correct

Answer 421

 Personality changes for everyone - development and ‘maturation’

Answer 422

None of these answers are correct

Answer 423

Both these answers are correct

Answer 424

When two people like each other and discover that they are similar, this represents a balanced state.

Answer 425

Unbalanced states involve negative affect.

Answer 426

All answers are correct

Answer 427

 Authoritarianism: more obedience from those who respect and value authority  Locus of control: more obedience from those with an external locus of control

Answer 428

that people are exposed to powerful treatments, the role of the individual differences among them are minimized”

Answer 429

 above average trait-behaviour effects emerge even in ‘strong situations’ in replicated studies.

Answer 430

 Fleeson (2001): Individuals vary over time and space in their personality state expressions……but also are highly stable:

Answer 431

 Average levels of personality states are well predicted by personality trait questionnaires

Answer 432

 Techniques for assessing behaviours/experiences multiple times per day for several days or weeks

Answer 433

All answers are correct

Answer 434

• Regularities in behaviour and experience

Answer 435

 A person’s typical mode of response

Answer 436

Our identity and our reputation

Answer 437

There is no one definition

Answer 438

Dispositional traits

Answer 439

Life Narratives

Answer 440

Characteristic Adaptions

Answer 441

All of these answers are true

Answer 442

Important characteristics will, over human history, be coded in language.  Collected an exhaustive list of personality descriptors – about 18,000 terms (e.g., sociable, aggressive…)

Answer 443

Personality traits are probabilistic descriptions of regularities in behaviour and experience

Answer 444

Factor Analysis A statistical method that reduces several correlated variables to much fewer composite variables or factors…

Answer 445

None of these answers are correct

Answer 446

a personality system or taxonomy system

Answer 447

 describing the structure of personality

Answer 448

 Organizing the universe of trait descriptors

Answer 449

All these answers are correct:

Answer 450

 Moderate trait-situation correlations, e.g.,  Neuroticism  situations high in Negativity,  Extraversion  situations high in Sociality,  Conscientiousness  situations high in Duty

Answer 451

 Correlated predictors can make it harder to detect interactions

Answer 452

Breil & Vazire, 2017  Possible role of situation perception, inflating trait-situation correlations

Answer 453

All answers are correct

Answer 454

 Genetics and evolutionary history

Answer 455

 Upbringing, parenting

Answer 456

 Social context and culture

Answer 457

All answers are correct

Answer 458

1. Family studies: siblings vs. more distant relatives

Answer 459

2. Twin studies: identical vs. fraternal twins

Answer 460

3. Adoption studies: siblings raised together vs. apart

Answer 461

All of these answers are correct

Answer 462

Personality a weak predictor of behaviour (r ~ .30).

Answer 463

Behaviour varies considerably over situations.

Answer 464

Both answer is correct

Answer 465

Neither answer is correct

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