Attitudes Towards Language

Frage	Antworten
Oppositional Reading	Opposing view to the writer
Preferred Reading	The way the writer would want the text to be viewed
Negotiated View	An on-the-fence view of the text
Neville Gwynne	We can only think in language, therefore, bad grammar means we are expressing something we don't mean, resulting in bad decisions, which leads to unhappiness
Universality Position	All humans share a common view of the world (conceptual primes) - reflectivist
Morpheme Realisation	'racism', 'racist' etc
History of Political Correctness; Frankfurt, Fromm, CT	The Frankfurt School - school of neo-marxist thinkers established Fromm - first thinker that believed there was no difference between genders, but their differences were defined by their roles in society Critical Theory - the foundation of Political Correctness
David Crystal - Swimming Against The Tide	Change is like the sea; prescriptivism is going against it
Puttenham - 17th Century Prescriptivism	Usual speech of the court was to be the selection for Standard English
Jean Aitchison - Crumbling Castle optimum	This metaphor implies that English once reached an optimum. Yet this cannot be as not such date has been found
Jean Aitchison - A Web of Worries	Prescriptivists have a 'web of worry' about language change, which is formed from being 'entangled' in opinions that aren't true
Jean Aitchison - Damp Spoon Metaphor; informal, suit	Neither informal or formal speech is superior; they are both just intrinsically different We fit speech to suit the situation
Jessee Sheidlower Said That...	'Descriptivist advice is an oxymoron'
Frank Palmer Said That...	'What is correct and what is not correct is only a matter of what is accepted by society'
The Problem of Prescriptivism and Latin	Prescriptivism is formed from Latin, therefore some rules today do not make sense or translate into English, such as split infinitives
Jean Aitchison - The Damp Spoon Metaphor (2); laziness	This is the belief that English language has changed due to laziness. However, Aitchison says that no language is lazy other than drunken language, and English has certainly not changed because of this
Jean Aitchison - Infectious Disease Metaphor	Changes in Language are not random, because people pick up changes that they want
John Humphry's Prescriptivism; superfluous, pretention	-Humphys is against superfluous words, euphemisms, and the misuse of pronouns such as 'raise up'; -He says that these are pretentious and add nothing to our language
Lynne Truss- Eats, Shoots and Leaves	-'Proper punctuation is both the sign and the cause of clear thinking' -Punctuation argued as linguistic determinism
Perk of Prescriptivism	It provides a central Standard English, making it easier for people globally to communicate
Political Correctness Context; 1970s, movement	-Emerged in the 1970s in America; -Shared ground with the feminist movement of the time
Generic Masculine	The practice of using masculine forms of English to refer to all people
Norman Tebbitt, 1985	Non-Standard forms of language are linked to crime This is plausible as inmates use non-standard language more than anyone else
Randolph Quick	Quick advocates teaching Standard forms in school as a form of social empowerment
1362	Under the reign of Edward III, English because the official language of England
Max Muller on Language Decay	'The history of Aryan language is nothing but a gradual process of decay'
Sharon Goodman	-English has become conversational -Some people don't like this because they believe that this has made our language a device to manipulate one another
Against Political Correctness	PC has resulted in a loss of freedom in our expression
Great Vowel Shift As An Argument For Descriptivism	The Great Vowel Shift did not affect literacy rates or damage coherence of English
Lexifier	The most dominant language with an koin - Kerswill
Gratuitous Modifiers	Modifiers that are unnecessary, such as 'lady driver' and 'black lawyer'
Steven Pinker - The Euphemistic Treadmill	-Perforation and semantic changes; where euphemisms use their euphemistic values and become negatively viewed upon
Against Prescriptivism; succeeded	Many people have sought to standardise forms, but none have succeeded
Political Correctness - Context (2); War, discrimination	-PC stems back to World War I as a totalitarian ideology -Tries not to endorse any forms of discrimination
Rebuttals Against Political Correctness; Utilitarian, confusion, freewill	-The expense of the majority can be used for the minority -Causes confusion and philosophical contradictions - evasion of freewill in our self-reflexive modern era
Cultural Marxism	What PC objectively strives for - multiculturalism
General View on Political Correctness Today	PC has been debunked by many today as they believe it to be impractical and totalitarian in approach
Gender Neutral Terms	Usually occupational terms that do not mark out gender identities, e.g. 'police worker', 'firefighter'
Gate-Keeping Theory	What gets filtered into society's mainstream, governed by mass media or the state
Psycholinguistics	-The causes of change rooted with the minds of language users -Not to do with any external, societal influences -Mostly seen in phonological changes - easier forms of articulation are becoming the norms over time because of the subconscious decision to alter language
Ethnographic Methodologies	-Fieldwork in a certain context investigated -Data taken outside of natural context, such as interviews
Qualitative Research	Analysing examples of language use in detail and context
Quantitative	Statistical analysis of data that has been gathered
Chris Kramrae - Muted Group Theory	The pattern of inferior groups, who are not free to say that they wish as their language has been formulated by the dominant group in society
Synchronic & Diachronic Approaches	Ferdinand De Sassure
Sociolinguistic Study	Study of the external factors affect language
Swift and Miller's Pronoun Power Proposal	English Language only fits a white, male orthodoxy

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