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| Frage | Antworten |
| Peter Trudgill, Norwich Study 1974 | Lower classes pronounced alveolar consonant, 'walkin'', upper classes pronounced velar nasal, 'walking' |
| The North and South Gap - wealth, employment and Standard language | -Since the 1970s, a gap has been growing between North and South England; decline in wealth for North, and increase in wealth in South. South encourage Standard language for employment; Northerns do not |
| Migrants in Milton Keynes; typical pattern of migrants | Migrants came to Milton Keynes in the 1950s for a hope of somewhere better to live; very open network, which is a typical pattern of migrants |
| Them as Demonstrative Pronoun | 'Look at them spiders' |
| 'What' As Subject Relative Pronoun | 'That fish what he caught' |
| 'Never' As Past Tense Negator | 'No I never, Charlotte!!' |
| Metathesis | Changing medial parts of a word, e.g. 'foilage' from 'foliage' |
| General Patterns in Occupational Jargon | -Phrasal Verbs - verb+particle, such as 'I'm on it' -Broadened terms - mouse now can mean a computer mouse -Dysphemisms such as the 'departure lounge' aforementioned |
| Rhotacism | adding R sounds |
| Isogloss | A geographical boundary of particular linguistic features |
| Lenition | The softening of stops - 'block' like 'loch' - Liverpudlian |
| Features of Geordie Dialect (continued); isolated, Scotland, merger, traditions, natural | -As Newcastle isn't geographically isolated, it plays into the accommodation theory as words have died out easily -Geordie picked up Scottish lexical items, as it's on the border with Scotland -Nurse/Square merger -Dialectal changes as words die out and traditions fade -It is natural for language to change - progress versus decay |
| 'Grassroots strike back' | Rosewarne's comment on estuary English in 1984 |
| Features of Geordie Dialect (continued); changing, distinction, understanding | -Reflectionist - Geordie dialect changes with the times -One of the most distinctive accents of the British Isles -Geordie have had to accommodate their dialect in order to be better understood |
| Howard Giles' Capital Punishment Experiment | -Giles presented five groups of students with an identical set of arguments on capital punishment (mixed guise) -One group read a printed text, other four were oral presentations spoken in different accents -One group heard an RP speaker, another a Somerset speaker, spoken in different accents |
| Qualities of RP | Received pronunciation is geographically non-regional, and has qualities that are no longer desirable |
| Howard Giles' Capital Punishment Experiment (continued) | -Students were most impressed with the RP accent -Regional accents scored most highly -Student were more likely to change their view when hearing regional accents rather than RP |
| Rosenstock (rose in stock) - Greying World | There is now too big of a linguistic gap between the young and old for sufficient communication |
| Jenny Cheshire, Peer Groups, 1980 | -Cheshire identified eleven non-standard features and measured the frequency in boys and girls' speech in adventure playground -Focused on grammatical variants -Group A was middle class and disapproved of criminal activities -Group B was working class and approved of criminal activities |
| Jenny Cheshire, Peer Groups, 1980 | -Cheshire identified eleven non-standard features and measured the frequency in boys and girls' speech in adventure playground -Focused on grammatical variants -Group A was middle class and disapproved of criminal activities -Group B was working class and approved of criminal activities |
| Rise-Fall Intonation | Typical of Estuary English |
| Linguistic Integration | When migrants learn the native language of their settlement |
| Language Repertoire | The idea that everyone can have plurilingual competence |
| Jenny Cheshire - Peer Groups in Reading, 1980 | -More use of non-standard features within Group B (working class group) -Cheshire concluded that patterns of non-standard usage was important for younger children to identify themselves as part of a group |
| Trudgill on Non-Standard English | -It is not a language, but just a variety; not an accent, but a dialect |
| Post-Creole Continuum | Once a creole has been established, it will evolve according to the culture and influences, such as Sue Fox's MEYD |
| Linguistic Imperalism | Transferring a language to other countries in order to demonstrate power |
| Features of Estuary; happY, 'hewwo', 'tishoo', 'mawth' | -HappY tensing -L-Vocalisation when an L sound is replaced by a vowel or semi-vowel to velarise (retracting tongue from palate), e.g. 'hewwo' -Yod Coalescence - blending of gliding vowels 'y' with stops, e.g. 'tishoo' -Mouth-Vowel Monothongs - 'mouth' becomes 'mawth' |
| Globish | The simplification of the most common English words to be spoken by second-language users |
| Features of Estuary English (continued); 'what is tha'?', divergence | -T-glottalling - taking away T-stops, e.g. 'what is tha'?' -Glotalling - metathetical removal of glottal sounds, e.g. 'wa'er' -Spoken around Thames estuary/South East -Tries to diverge from RP |
| Kachru's Model of Global English | -The inner circle= English in its original spread -Outer circle= English spread through colonisation by Britain in Africa/Asia where English is not the native tongue -Expanding circle= English plays no historical or governmental role; it is only used for international communication (China, Brazil) |
| Barrie Rhodes on Why Dialects Differ; language breaks, moving away, W | -Language breaks into dialects as populations spread over larger areas -People who move furthest away from their homeland preserve older patterns of speech -We still pronounce 'W' the Old English way -Whereas Germany pronounce it like 'V' |
| McArthur's Model of Global English | Inner circle= word Standard English -Next circle= made of regional standards that are emerging -Outer layer= local varieties that have similarities with emerging/regional standards -English spread through colonisation |
| William Labov - Martha' Vineyard Study | -Martha's Vineyard is an island on the north east coast of America 'Labov interviewed 69 people from different ages, ethnic groups etc -Labov conversed with the participants, leading them towards uttering certain vowels -He found that locals pronounced dipthongs with a more central point, and that participants from the ages of 30-60 were more inclined to do this, than the young or old |
| Barrie Rhodes on Why Dialects Differ (continued); English triangle | -Dialect spoken by wealthiest/most powerful selection of the population takes over as 'Standard' dialect; -This is true of the English triangle between London, Oxford and Cambridge |
| Linguistic Diversity | A way of representing the amount of living languages; especially seen in Canada where English and French are the national languages |
| International Phonetic Alphabet | Over 160 symbols used to represent the sounds in spoken language -That symbol that look a bit like a droopy n, is the one Trudgill experiments on |
| Mark Sebba on London Jamaican (continued); 16th century, pidgins, code-switching | -In the 16th century, people were brought over from the Caribbean to English during slave trading -Jamaicans spoke minimal English, therefore the Jamaicans had to create a pidgin to communicate with British natives. This is where code-switching groups from |
| Rosewarne on Estuary English | -Estuary coined the term 'estuary English' in 1984, and described it as a 'variety of modified regional speech' -It was first spoken by the banks of the Thames and its estuary, but since then has spread Westerly, even to Cornwall -Setter now described 'estuary English' as an 'umbrella dialect' |
| Decreolization | When creoles become standardised |
| Recreolization | When creoles are modified, e.g. natives from the West Indies came to Britain |
| Sue Fox on MEYD (continued); students | -Students from white, Anglo-Saxon backgrounds spoke the same dialect as Arabic, or South Americans etc |
| Sociolinguistic Maturation | -The age at which a speaker becomes less susceptible to the influence of different varieties on their own language usage -Sets in around late teens-early twenties -Children are much more likely to modify or vary their language |
| Colloquial Language Study at King's College London, 1995 | -Research on which colloquialisms had the most synonyms -Drink/drugs lexis had the most synonyms - 17.46%, e.g. 'hammered', 'bladdered' etc |
| William Labov - New York Study, 1960s | -Linguistic variables are attached to socio-economic class -Most affluent New Yorkers would pronounce the dental fricatives; 'TH' in 'thirty third street'; -Whereas least affluent would use a 't' form; -Middle class would use a variable in-between these two |
| Language Variation | Variation is caused by the way social groups are formed by their shared experience |
| Peter Trudgill on Standard English (continued); D,C,S | -Standard= determination, codification and stabilisation -Standard is not defined - capital or non-capital? |
| Dialect Prestige | Basolect= low prestige Mecrolect= medium prestige Acrolect= high prestige |
| Basil Bernstein - Elaborative and Restrictive Codes | -Working class speak in a restricted code -Middle class speak in an elaborative code -Elaborative code= a vast amount of linguistic alternatives Restricted code- little to no other alternatives - very predictive Restricted codes represent a communion based culture (solidarity) - and should not be disvalued |
| Ellen Ryan - Status and Solidarity | -These represent the attitudes that people have towards different speakers -Status= language independence -Solidarity= language community |
| Hopper & Zahn | Regional varieties score highest in terms of solidarity |
| Paul Kerswill's Research on Milton Keynes and Reading - Dialectal Levelling; vowels | -Emergence of vowel-fronting in Milton Keyne,which is similar to estuary English -The same can be said for Reading |
| Jane Stuart-Smith | There are estuary features in the Glaswegian accent, such as TH-fronting |
| Paul Kerswill on Koineisation in Milton Keynes; study, conclusions, network | -Kerswill recorded fourty-eight Milton Keynes-born children, from three different ages groups (four, eight and twelve); the caregivers of each child, and elderly residents -Found that koineisation occurs in the children's generation -Social network characteristic are crucial to the outcomes of koineisation |
| Paul Kerswill on Koineisation (continued); 'do', generations | -Longer term changes of koineisation= auxiliary of the word 'do' -Koineisation usually takes two or three generations to complete |
| Paul Kerswill on Koineisation (continued); change, settlements, koines, external, internal | -Koineisation leads to dramatic, rapid change -It occurs in new settlements which people have migrated to from different language areas -'Koines'= speech of 'new towns', such as Milton Keynes -External social factors of change such as migration -Internal factors of change such as structure of language and phonology occur because of a structural imbalance |
| Paul Kerswill on Koineisation (continued); older generations, emergence, 1950s | -Older generations were unaffected by Kerswill's study -Koines emerge separately from source dialects; which do not interfere with their use -Milton Keynes was created as a city in the 1950s - its population has quadrupled |
| Aziz Corporation, 2003 | -An image consultant firm researched the perception amongst leading business people -Researched along the lines of the status and solidarity model -Half of the businessmen found regional accents to be a disadvantage in business -Scottish accent was seen as useful; whilst the Cockney accent was seen as dishonest |
| Laughter Study - Lesley Harbige, Aberdeen University | -Asked four-thousand people to listen to the same joke told in eleven regional accents (matched guise methodology) -The Brummie accent was considered the funniest, but also the least intelligent |
| Intelligence Study - Dr Lance Workman of Bath Spa University | -Asked fourty-eight people to compare accents -Aim of the study was to find out about stereotypes -Compared Yorkshire accent with Brummie accent and RP, whilst looking at photos of models, they then repeated this in silence |
| Intelligence Study - Dr Lance Workman of Bath Spa University (continued) | -RP was ranked as the highest by fourty-eight participants -Brummie accent scored the lowest intelligence rating -Conclusion: accent had no impact on beauty, yet it significantly affected the rating of intelligence |
| William Labov - Overt & Covert Prestige | Overt Prestige= the way language forms acquire prestige and acceptance. Is promoted by society Covert Prestige= language forms acquiring prestige because they differ from accepted values |
| Milroy's Study of Open & Closed Networks in Belfast | -Studied closed-networks of high density -Gave each village a network score depending on the closeness -Closed-network - where contacts know everyone -Closed-networks were defined by Milroy as 'norm enforcers', as a high network score correlated with the high rate vernacular/non-Standard forms |
| Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger - Communities in Practice, 1991 | The idea that participating with others in using a language variety is central to learning and strengthening the variety |
| Creoles | -Nativised by children, unlike pidgins |
| Mark Sebba on London Jamaican; 17th and 18th centuries, sugar plantations, patois | -Jamaica's creole roots from the impact of British colonists in the 17th and 18th centuries; -The use of West-African slaves working sugar plantations in Jamaica affected this. The language that then ensured between the English and Jamaicans formed the Jamaican creole -Patois= London Jamaican+Jamaican creole+cockney+RP |
| Mark Sebba on London Jamaican (continued); verb aspects, immigrants; today... | -Verb aspects are created from the addition of words, e.g. 'wen't' is a main verb to create a past participle, e.g. 'me wen't go to da shops' -London Jamaican has evolved for the language needs of immigrants that have settled in England -Today, Jamaicans speaks a weaker form of this creole with varying degrees of standards |
| David Crystal's Language of Technology: Rebus | words represented graphologically |
| David Crystal's Language of Technology: Nonce Formation | misspelled words deliberately put together |
| Mark Sebba on Jamaican Creole (continued); suffixes, copulas | -Tenses and aspects are shown by adding additional words or particles to the main verb, rather than by adding inflectional suffixes as found in Standard English -They use small particles as copulas, e.g. 'deh'='is' |
| David Crystal's Word of Technology: Eye-Dialect Form | Non-standard spelling for pronunciation - George P. Krapp |
| Mark Sebba's Study on Catford Girl's Possee | Jamaican girls are the main promoters of change, as they use dense amounts of code-switching |
| David Crystal's Language of Technology: Concord Rule Breaking | when agreements are impoverished, e.g. 'he ain't' |
| David Crystal's Language of Technology: Non-Standard Symbol Combinations | e.g. ';)' and '@' |
| Code-Switching | Switching between different language varieties or languages within an utterance |
| David Crystal's Language of Technology: Internal Sentence Punctuation | 'Omg im on tumblr cant breathe what the hell is life i cant even' |
| David Crystal's Language of Technology: Emotive Punctuation Sentences | E.g. 'Love mi nan!!!!!!!' |
| The British Empire & Global English; interactions, 'kangaroo' | -The English language changed as the Empire moved across the world, as the settlers in England interacted with the natives; -Therefore, new words were added to the English vocabulary such as 'kangaroo' |
| David Crystal's Rule For Technology, 2001 | -No rules for emailing; -Crystal made the rule that you should email everyone as though you were emailing your mother |
| Texting - Logogram | A grapheme that represents a word or morpheme |
| David Crystal - 2B Or Not 2B | -Some texts are grammatically complex |
| John Humphrys on Texting | 'Texters are vandals to our language' |
| John Sutherland on Texting | 'Texting is penmanship for illiterates' |
| Migration; languages in London, Indian and West Indies, 1700s | -More than three hundred languages are spoken in London -Immigrants from the Indian subcontinent and West Indies have added variety and diversity, due to the slave trade; -And British Empire expanded in 1700s, where English was made the dominant language in Africa, India, Australia etc |
| David Crystal's 2B Or Not 2B on Initialisms | -Initialisms such as 'IOU' date back to 1618 -Johnathan Swift - abbreviation was a 'barbarous custom' |
| Dominant Forms in Global English | British and American English are the most dominant forms of English |
| Peter Stevens on Global English | English across the world may lead to the extinction of many other languages |
| Australia Soap Influence on English | The rising intonation in Britain was inspired by Australian soaps in the 1990s |
| Hinglish & Engrish | -Hinglish is taught across many schools in India -Engrish is the summation of the idiosyncratic ways that East Asian languages translate Asian concepts into English -Phonetic patterns in Asia are very different to England - no common ground -Symbol based structures of Asian countries are incompatible with English |
| Chinese Pidgin English | -The world 'pidgin' comes from a Chinese pronunciation of 'business' -CPE began as early as the 17th century |
| Features of Irish; aka, 'tum-ti', 'happenin'', rhotic, vernacular, dipthongs | -Also known as hiberno-English -Trochaic 'tum-ti' -G-dropping -Rhotic - strong R sounds, influenced by old French -Irish is part of the oldest vernacular in Europe -Breaking of vowel dipthongs, e.g. 'near' |
| Pidgins | -No native speakers -Evolved from a main source language, but is less grammatically developed -Spoken in particular contexts, rather than in a native context |
| Creoles | -Grew out of pidgins -More established than pidgins, as second generations are beginning to use them |
| Irish (continued); island, syntax structure, 'I come home for the Christmas', 'do' and 'be', 'they do running fast', 'getting wash on' | -Since Ireland is an island (woah lol), it has resisted dialectal levelling (Paul Kerswill) -Old English syntactical sentence structure (V,S,O) -Extended use of the definite article, e.g. 'I come home for the Christmas' -Verbs 'do' and 'be' are paired as auxiliary verbs -Forms present continuous tense, e.g. 'they do running very fast' -Prepositional phrases, e.g. 'getting a wash on' |
| William Labov on American English | -Double /t/ was modeled on British patterns -Boston, like Liverpool was easily influenced due to its docks and trade -American English was propelled when American gained independence from Britain in Philadelphia -America wanted to sound more British before World War I, and less so after World War I; -America then gained a national identity through language |
| Features of The Black Country; prestige, style, conjunctions, 'fu' | -The accent is generally perceived as a basolect -Middle of Britain -Generally speak with a negative capability -Syndeton- use of many conjunctions -Lenition - taking away stops, e.g. 'for' becomes 'fu' |
| Pluricentric Languages; national identity, no dominance | -A language with several standard variations, e.g. 'American English', 'Australian English' -Usually arises when the language and national identity of speakers do not coincide -English is a 'symmetrical' language, since there is no clear cultural dominance between the different languages |
| Paul Kerswill's Research on Reading's Accent; sounding more like...,Older people and young people's accents; London | -Reading's accent is changing to sound more like a London accent -Older people have the Berkshire accent, which sounds more like a West Country accent; -Younger people have the London accent, due to the expansion of London |
| Paul Kerswill's Research on Reading's Accent (continued); commuting, prevention of homogenisation | -As commuting and travelling becomes easier, there is dialectal levelling -However, close-knit communities prevent a pure, homogenised British voice |
| The Evolution of Global English; first language, contributions | -English has been adopted as the first common language of several countries of business; -Internet and multimedia has contributed to this |
| Sue Fox- Multi-Ethnic Youth Dialects; influences | -Research focused on the dialects of youths from a variety of different ethnic groups across London -Strong influences drawn from the influences of several other languages, creoles and culture sources |
| Paul Baker on Polari | -Focused on variety used from 1930s-1970s -Included borrowings from Italian -Rhyme/backslang |
| Leet; mode, formed, characters, spelling, 'creamage' | -Almost an exclusively written mode form -Formed in the 1980s -Has alphanumeric characters -Ever-changing spelling so information cannot be found -Bound morphemes are used to create abstract noun forms, such as 'creamage' |
| Features Of Essex Accent; vowels, migration, hybrid between, 'first', W, V and T, wa'er | -Raised vowels -People moved out of central London to East London - bringing the cockney accent with them -A mix of the cockney and Estuary accent -TH-fronting - 'thirst' becomes 'first' -W, V and T often interchanged -Glottal Stop - 'wa'er' |
| Michael Halliday on Anti-Languages | -Halliday formed nine criteria for an anti-language; one of them being that; -An anti-society is a society which is set up within another society as an alternative -Metaphorical modes of expression are the norm -Anti-languages are the lingua franca of an anti-society |
| Cryptolects; Tuscany | -Came from Italy -Used by priests in Tuscany for both secular and religious people -Now a secret language often used by drug dealers |
| Cant | The language used by thieves |
| Malcolm Petyt and Social Climbing in Bradford, West Yorkshire (1985) | -Concentrated on initial H being dropped (H-dropping) and measured its instances -The lower the socioeconomic group, the more occurrences there were of H-dropping -In social mobility, speech would be adapted towards RP speech (less H-dropping) |
| Features of Cockney English; 'bovva', ''at', 'wa'er', 'cowt' | -Loss of dental fricatives- 'bother' becomes 'bovva' -H-stopping -Glottal Stops - water=wa'er -Dipthong alterations - 'coat' becomes 'cowt' |
| Prison Argot; original definition, incarcerate's slang, endemic | -Argot originally referred to 'brotherhood' 'Many incarcerates involved before sentence to prison with their own slang; -There are therefore combinations between institute-specific and criminal terminologies -Incarceration produces an endemic in group language |
| Received Pronunciation; 2%, a D, positive prestige, Trugill | -Around 2% of Britons today speak RP in its purest form -A sociolect, not a dialect -Positive Prestige - tendency to align our idiolects to a favoured dialect -Sociologically, women are more likely to adopt this pattern (Trudgill) |
| Prison Argot (continued); Northern and Southern states | -Glossaries from Southern states contain Spanish terms, such as 'placa' for 'guard'; -North include African American slang such as 'fish' for a new inmate |
| Features of Geordie; coal mining, assimilation, village, Kevin Watson, M & U | -Much of Geordie has died out; coal miners used to talk in 'pitmatic' -There has been an assimilation of dialects to form a language standardisation -Dialectal changes as we become part of the 'global village' -Kevin Watson - 'Newcastle is no longer a dialectal island' -Modernisation and Urbanisation move dialects closer together |
| Features of Geordie (continued); class, preservation; not viable, schooling | -Employment and class are now less relevant factors -Dialects tend to be best preserved in rural, close-knit communities -Not viable in an industrial city like Newcastle -Schooling is an anti-dialectal force as it encourages Standard English |
| York; heart of..., lexicon remained from... | -York was at the heart of Danelaw, which was the viking kingdom in Britain -Much lexicon has remained from Old Norse |
| Navy Jackspeak; 'abeam' | -Sociolect of the Royal Navy -Mainly lexical and non-standard, e.g. 'abeam' means something that is opposite/adjacent to something else |
| Features of Liverpudlian; influence, sing-song, 't', filler, 'worra', guttural, 'bOOk' | -Has a significant influence from Irish speakers -Prosody - a sing-song way of talking -Affricated Consonants - 't' -'Ay' as a filler -Assimilation - 'worra' instead of 'want a' -Guttural dropping -Elongated medial vowels, e.g. 'bOOK' |
| Adam Fox on Medical Jargon; register, 'biparental', 'departure lounge' | -Adopts more than one register -Latinate forms, such as 'biparental' -Dysphemisms such as 'departure lounge' used to refer to the geriatric ward of hospitals |
| Features of Liverpudlian (continued); 'our mam', Kevin Watson, Paul Kerswill, postal town, homogeneous accent, happY tensing | -HappY tensing -Substitution of possessive pronoun to collective pronoun, e.g. 'our mam' -Kevin Watson - 'Liverpool remains a dialectal island' -Paul Kerswill - 'Liverpool has resisted dialectal levelling' -A postal town; used to trade, therefore language is fast-spoken and economic -Loss of a homogeneous Northern accent |
| Types of Pronunciation | Nurse/Square Merger: Liverpool, Dublin, Belfast Mirror/Nearer Merger: Dublinese Cheer/Chair Merger: Early Modern English sequence now used in the North Stir/Steer Merger: West Country, e.g. 'ear'= 'ur' |
| Epenthesis | adding extra letters, e.g. 'doggles' |
| Epenthetic Inversion | removing letters |
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