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| Frage | Antworten |
| What is deviant behaviour? | Behaviour that differs from social norms and incurs public disapproval |
| What causes an act to be deviant? | Society labels it that way |
| What sanctions is deviance controlled by? | Formal and Informal |
| Give 2 examples of formal sanctions | Detention and Prison |
| Give 2 examples of informal sanctions | Naughty Step and Sarcasm |
| What is a crime? | A specific act of deviance that breaks society's formal rules or laws |
| Things definded as criminal differ depending on what? | Time, Place and Culture |
| Give an example of a criminal act that differs according to place | The use of cannabis in certain countries |
| Give an example of a criminal act that differs according to culture | Female genital mutilation is considered a traditional rite of passage into womanhood in many Muslim nations |
| Give an example of a criminal act that differs according to time | Homosexuality used to be illegal in the UK |
| What are the biological: genetic theories? | XYY, Twin and Adoption Studies |
| What is the basis of the XYY theory? | Men with an extra Y chromosome are more likely to commit violent crimes |
| What was Extra Y Syndrome suggested to lead to? | - High testosterone levels - Powerful bodily build - Heightened aggression - Propensity for violent crime |
| Who developed the XYY theory? | Jacobs |
| What are some criticisms of the XYY theory? | - Over deterministic - Ignored enviromental upbringing |
| What is the basis of the Twin Study? | When an identical twin has committed a crime, in 52% of cases the other twin has too |
| What does the twin study suggest about genetics? | More than half of identical twins both commit crimes because they share the same genetics, creating a genetic link to crime |
| What does the twin study say about non-identical twins? | Only 22% of both non-identical twins commit crime because they only share half of the same genetics |
| What is a criticism of the twin studies? | It ignores environmental upbringing |
| Who developed the twin study? | Christiansen |
| What is the basis of adoption studies? | Children who were adopted and have a criminal record for property theft often have a biological father with criminal convictions despite not been raised by them. Suggests a genetic link. |
| Who developed the adoption study? | Mednick |
| What are some criticisms for adoption studies? | - ignores environmental upbringing - adopted children could simply be angry and lash out |
| What are the biological: physiological theories? | Actavistic form and somatotype theory |
| What is the basis of actavistic form? | People who look more primitive are more likely to commit crime |
| Who developed the actavistic form theory? | Lombrosso |
| What did the actavistic form theory say about women who commit crime? | Her wickedness must be enormous to triumph over the obstacle of maternity and emotions. They are more likely to commit crimes 'by passion'. |
| What are some criticisms of the actavistic form theory? | - other theories disagree that it is biologically determined - it has been disproven that there is any link between someones face and their criminality |
| Who developed the somatotype theory? | Sheldon |
| What is the basis of the somatotype theory? | Muscular people are more likely and more capable of committing crimes |
| According to the somatotype theory, what are the three body types? | - Ectomorph - Endomorph - Mesomorph |
| Which body type is most likely to be criminal? | Mesomorph |
| What are the attributes of the ectomorph body type? | Thin and low fat storage |
| What are the attributes of the endomorph body type? | Increased fat storage, large bone structure |
| What are the attributes of the mesomorph body type? | Large bones, solid torso, low fat levels |
| What are the 3 personality types according to somatotype theory? | - Viscerotonic - Somotonic - Cerebrotonic |
| Which personality is linked to endomorph? | Viscerotonic |
| Which personality is linked to ectomorph? | Cerebrotonic |
| Which personality is linked to mesomorph? | Somotonic |
| What are the attributes of a viscerotonic personality? | Comfortable person, likes luxury, extrovert |
| What are the attributes of a somotonic personality? | Active, dynamic and aggressive |
| What are the attributes of a cerebrotonic personality? | Introverted, skin complaints, fatigued, suffering from insomnia |
| What are some criticisms of the somatotype theory? | - Doesn't recognise non-physical crimes - Many other theories argue that crimes are committed not because of someone's body type |
| What are the individualistic: learning theories? | - Differential association - Social learning theory |
| Who developed differential association? | Edwin Sutherland |
| What is the basis of differential association? | Individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviour from interaction |
| How many key principles does differential association have? | 9 |
| What two definitions does differential assosiation say that people can learn? | favourable and unfavourable |
| What are some criticisms of differential association? | - Crime may run in families due to social deprivation or genetics - Different crime rates between men and women may be due to hormones |
| What are some strengths for differential association? | - can explain why crime runs in families - females are encourages to not be aggressive, can count for difference in crime rates between men and women |
| Who developed social learning theory? | Bandura |
| In social learning theory, what are the 3 aspected of motivation? | - External reinforcement - Vicarious reinforcement - Self reinforcement |
| What 3 contexts does observational learning take place in? | - The family - The prevalent subculture - culture symbols such as television and books |
| How many rules is there in social learning theory? | 8 |
| What is the role of media in social learning theory? | can witness anti-social behaviour through the media |
| What is the individualistic: psychodynamic theory? | Freud's ID, Ego and Superego |
| What are the three specific features relating to behaviour in freud's theory? | - Interaction of the ID, ego and superego - Fixation at a psychosexual stage of development - Defence Mechanisms |
| What are the three levels of Freud's iceberg? | - The conscious - The preconscious - The unconcious |
| What does the conscious control? | The small amount of mental activity we know about. (e.g. thoughts, perceptions) |
| What does the preconscious control? | Things we could be aware of if we wanted or tried. E.g. Memories, Stored knowledge |
| What does the unconscious control? | Things we are unaware of and can not become aware of. (e.g. instincts, deeply buried memories) |
| What is the ID? | Infantile, pre socialised part of the personality |
| What is the ego? | The ego is the executive of the personality, the planning, decision making, rational and logical part of us |
| What is the superego? | This is the moral part of the personality and, corresponds to the punishing and rewarding parent |
| What happens if you have a weak superego? | More likely to commit crime |
| What happens if you have a deviant superego? | More likely to commit crime |
| What happens if you have an excessively strong superego? | Hate yourself. Can lead to criminality such as suicide & drugs |
| What did Freud say defence mechanisms do? | Prevent anxiety, arousing impulses and thoughts from reaching the conscious. They distort reality and therefore protect us. |
| What are the defence mechanisms? | - Denial - Projection - Suppression - Displacement - Sublimation - Regression - Rationaliasation - Reaction formation |
| What are some weaknesses of Freud's theory? | - Difficult to test (unscientific) - Freud's theory insinuates that boys should be more moral but actually, they commit more crimes |
| What are some strengths of Freud's theory? | - Recognises inner emotions affect behaviour - Addresses root cause of behaviour - Many people with mental disturbances do remember childhood traumas |
| What are the individualistic: Psychological theories? | - Personality theory - Moral Development |
| Who developed the personality theory? | Eysenck |
| What are the two dimensions which Eysenck suggested peoples personalities vary along? | - Extraversion - Neuroticism |
| What is extraversion? | How much stimulation someone needs |
| What is neuroticism? | How emotionally unstable someone is |
| What is the personality of someone with high neuroticism? | People who have very changeable emotions; prone to anxiety and depression |
| What is the personality of someone with low neuroticism? | People who have very stable emotions |
| What is the personality of someone with high extraversion? | People who need lots of external stimulation |
| What is the personality of someone with low extraversion? | People who need little external stimulation |
| What did Eysenck suggest the extraversion and the neuroticism measure? | The characteristics of the nervous system |
| What does the extraversion measure within the nervous system? | Central and autonomic arousal level. The lower this is, the more stimulation you need from your environment and the harder you are to condition successfully. |
| What does the neuroticism measure within the nervous system? | How strongly your nervous system reacts to aversive stimuli. The stronger your responses the more extreme your emotional changes. High N-scorers are also hard to condition to behave in a way that is socially acceptable. |
| When Eysenck added a third dimension, what was it? | Psychoticism |
| What is the personality of high psychoticism scorers? | Cold Uncaring Solitary Aggressive |
| Why do people with a high E, N and P run a higher risk of offending? | It is difficult for them to learn to control their immature impulses. |
| What is a strength of personality theory? | Possible to find evidence. 2002 study that found psychopaths were much more likely to plan murders as there are uncaring. Its possible to identify these traits in people. |
| What are some weaknesses of personality theory? | - A measure of personality is very subjective to each individual - Ignores upbringing (poverty etc) - Not everyone with a specific type of personality turns to crime. |
| Who developed the moral development theory? | Kohlberg |
| What did Kohlberg's theory suggest? | We go through distinct stages of moral development |
| What are the three levels of moral development? | 1: Pre-Conventional morality 2: Conventional morality 3: Post Conventional morality |
| What are the two stages of the first level of morality? | - Obedience and Punishment - Individualism and Exchange |
| What are the two stages of the second level of morality? | - Interpersonal Relationships - Maintaining Social Order |
| What are the two stages of the third level of morality? | - Social Contract and Individual Rights - Universal Principles |
| What is the Obedience and Punishment stage? | At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment. |
| What age is the Obedience and Punishment stage? | Infancy |
| What is the Individualism and Exchange stage? | Children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. Interest shifts to rewards rather than punishment. |
| What age is the Individualism and Exchange stage? | Pre-School |
| What is the Interpersonal Relationships stage? | The ‘good boy/girl’ stage. Effort is made to secure approval and maintain friendly relations with others |
| What age is the Interpersonal Relationships stage? | School Age |
| What is the Maintaining Social Order stage? | People begin to consider society as a whole when making judgements. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing ones duty and respecting authority. |
| What age is the Maintaining Social Order stage? | School age |
| What is the Social Contract and Individual Rights stage? | People begin to account for the different values, opinion and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards. |
| What age is the Social Contract and Individual Rights stage? | Teens |
| What is the Universal Principles stage? | Based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalised principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules. |
| What age is the Universal Principles stage? | Adulthood |
| What are some strengths of the moral development theory? | It could be suggested to be a holistic approach to crime, this is because it looks at internal factors such as development but also considered the environments impact on a criminals psychological reasoning. |
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