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| What four components interact to form Freud's biopsychosocial theory? | 1. Biological source for behaviours 2. Pressure from these drives cause activity 3. Objects are the focus of our desire 4. Aim is usually to satisfy the desire e.g. hunger --> eating --> food --> satiation |
| According to Freud, what is the basis of our mind? | Wishes and desires According the the pleasure principle (later revised to the pleasure tendency), we constantly search for immediate gratification; thus, thinking is a way of planning how we will achieve this |
| What does psychodynamics refer to and why is it important? | Psychological conflict between internal desires and socialisation - the mind is a society of competing, active desires and motives, which socialisation sometimes teaches us to suppress Our civilisation is built on instinctual renunciation (impulse control) |
| What can we understand by the idea of 'The Human Animal'? | Freud's Early Theory: - Self-Preservation Drives: hunger, thirst - Libidinal drives: sexual Later Theory: - Eros: self-preservation + sexual (combination of life instincts (ego) and libidinal ego) - Thanatos (Destructiveness): aggression as a re-channelled from of self-destructiveness |
| What is often misunderstood about Freud's terminology? | Sexuality broadly defined to encompass sensual pleasure, love and intimacy - not just sex |
| Describe the complexities of the unconscious. | Descriptive: non-current ideas due to limitations of human attention (exist in preconscious) --> WHAT Dynamic: what is repressed from consciousness --> WHY Systematic: response to demands of the pleasure principle in contrast to the orientation of the preconscious --> WHERE |
| What are the three components of Freud's Structural Model of Personality (1923)? | Id: biological/unconscious drives and instincts (selfish, non-socialised, desire for immediate gratification i.e. operates via the pleasure principle, wishful rather than realistic Ego: a differentiated part of the id that is specialised and organised to mediate between the demand of the id and external stimuli Superego: can be described as a conscience - v. high/unrealistic moral standards |
| How does Freud postulate that the superego develops? | Identification: ego attempts to pacify the id by modelling itself on a lost love object Internalisation: of the standards of adult authority and parental standards of morality, rightness, goodness, etc. Superego replaces the Oedipal wishes with father identification |
| What was Freud's explanation for anxiety? | Weaknesses in the ego's ability to pacify the id and the superego: 1. Realistic: fear of external stimuli 2. Neurotic: fear of being overwhelmed by the id's desires 3. Moral: fear of the superego's censure First significant anxiety experience = birth trauma |
| What are the common characteristics of danger situations? | 1. Feelings of helplessness in managing internal needs, coping with external threats or maintaining survival 2. Derivative/representation of the experience of loss 3. Potentially traumatic |
| What is the importance of the ego? | Reality Principle: helps us learn how to satisfy desires through reality (manipulate) Secondary Process: reason and common sense; gratification postponement |
| How does Freud's approach relate to the development of personality? | During Infancy: all id, unsocialised desires, dependency Socialisation: learn some desires lead to punishment/guilt Conflict: between desires and parental prohibition Repression: inhibit of antisocial desires Ego development: dominant part of personality, identification of self Superego development: moral beliefs, self-restrictions, ideals - extension of socialisation |
| What are some defence mechanisms, as outlined by Freud? | Repression: banishing of traumatic thoughts or unacceptable impulses from consciousness (requires energy from the preconscious - cathexis) Denial: not accepting the reality of the threatening situation (can help with coping with extreme stress but not proactive) Reaction Formation: transforming unacceptable desires into their opposite |
| What is the purpose of defence mechanisms? | - Used by the ego as solutions to conflict - Response to painful affect - Primitive/mature defences (coping) - Generally unconscious/automatic reactions |
| What are some of Freud's positive contributions to the field of psychology? | 1. Concept of disorders stemming from psychological, not physical, conditions 2. Effectiveness of verbal psychotherapy 3. Idea of the unconscious 4. Importance of drives 5. Emphasised the patient's own insight and role in recovery |
| What are some criticisms of Freud's theories? | - Largely untestable due to his focus on unconscious processes, esp. in infants who cannot even verbalise their experiences - Non-generalisability of subjects (German upper class) - Scientific literature supports his anal and oral stages of development, but not the Oedipus Complex/Penis Envy or the significance of dreams; some support for his work on Depression |
| What does Freud suggest as the most desirable state for the mind? | Principle of Constancy: nervous system repeatedly returns to an optimal state of minimal arousal The Nirvana Principle: similar; but distinguished between certain states of pleasure that increase excitation Conservative nature i.e. prefers a state of quietude and will repeat behaviours that allow it to return to such states |
| What were the four key assumptions upon which John Watson's radical behaviourism was based? | Watson's Behaviourist Manifesto (1913): 1. Evolutionary continuity: human behaviour only different from animal behaviour due to complexity 2. Reductionism: viewed behaviour as biochemical processes 3. Determinism: all responses determined by external events 4. Empiricism: all psychology should be objective and empirical, measurable and controllable --> only study observable behaviour, not mentality |
| What was the conclusion of Watson's work with Little Albert? | - Based on Pavlovian (Classical) Conditioning - UC (loud sound) + CS (white rat) = CR (crying, etc.) - Associates behaviour/responses with environmental cues - Stimulus generalisation - Freud incorrect about sexual urges as motives --> learned fears just as important |
| Evaluate Watson's work. | - Developed the idea of treating psychopathology based on changing behaviours - Used psychology in advertising - However, classical conditioning too simplistic as it doesn't account for voluntary behaviours |
| How did B.F. Skinner's work differ to Watson's form of behaviourism? | - Acknowledges Watson's oversimplification --> focusses on operant conditioning i.e. reinforcement theory - However, similarly rejects thoughts, mind, feelings, etc. and views psychoanalysis as overly complicated |
| What is Thorndike's Law of Effect and how did Skinner utilise it? | Thorndike: a response that leads to a 'satisfying state of affairs' is strengthened, while one which leads to the opposite is weakened. Skinner's Empirical Law of Effect: limited Thorndike's law to simply be the relationship between observable behaviour and its consequences |
| Differentiate between the different types of reinforcement. | Positive reinforcement: Any stimulus that strengthens the response it follows e.g. physical rewards Negative reinforcement: Removal of painful stimulus as a result of the desired response Positive Punishment: e.g. pain Negative Punishment: e.g. confiscation |
| What is Premack's Principle? | The idea that a behaviour of a higher probability (i.e. preferred action) can be contingent on the performing of a lower probability behaviour (i.e. less preferred action) --> the higher probability of behaviour is the reinforcer e.g. 'you can have dessert if you do your homework first' |
| What characterised Bandura's learning theory approach? | - Influence of behaviourism - Emphasis on environment - Laws of learning - Also acknowledges the importance of cognition in learning |
| What are the three components making up the triad of Reciprocal Determinism? | P: Person's awareness and thinking B: Person's ongoing behaviour E: Person's environment |
| How are these regulated? | Via the cognitive-emotional process of the self-regulatory system - Self-observation: self-monitoring in relation to standards (competence) - Judgements: of one's own behaviour relative to that of others or one's own standards - Self-reaction: self reward or punishment |
| What is self-efficacy and how is it developed? | An appraisal of one's capabilities for performance 1. Enactive attainments (accomplishments) 2. Vicarious experience (comparison w/ others) 3. Verbal persuasion (encouragement/discouragement) 4. Emotional arousal (anxiety/fear) |
| What is human agency and what are its main features? | "The capacity to exercise control over the nature and quality of one's life is the essence of humanness" (Bandura, 2001) 1. Intentionality 2. Self-reactiveness 3. Self-reflectiveness 4. Forethought |
| What effect does self-efficacy have on performance, motivation, emotions and mental health? | Performance: High SE = visualise success Motivation: High SE = initiative and persistence; low SE may abandon before even starting Emotions: High SE = feelings of high coping = positive emotion Mental Health: "an optimistic sense of personal efficacy necessary for positive wellbeing (Bandura, 1989) |
| What is the usefulness of self-enhancing biases? How does this differ from a depressed person's outlook? | Armor & Taylor (1998): People respond better to difficult situations when they over-estimate their abilities Depressive realism: actually more accurate (Alloy & Abrahamson (1979)) |
| Evaluate Bandura's theory. | - Strong experimental basis, although not scientific in a behaviourist sense as it involves cognition and emotion - Importance of role models - Strong clinical application - Neglects biological factors |
| What are the four steps of modelling/observational learning? | 1. Attend to model 2. Remember and extract essential elements 3. Reproduce symbolically what has been learned 4. Motivation to perform that activity |
| What is vicarious reinforcement? What did Bandura emphasise about reinforcement? | - Being affected by reinforcement not directed at oneself e.g. observing another child's punishment - Should provide an incentive to act, not just a reward for past action |
| What are the developmental phases of self-efficacy? | 1. Infancy: linking action with outcome 2. Acquiring Social Competence: learning that many, but not all, of their actions result in intended, anticipated outcomes 3. Recognition and Differentiation of Self as Active Agent e.g. I, mine 4. Childhood: Comparing One's Competence with Others (initially siblings, then peers) 5. School Age: Social Validation of Self-Efficacy 6. Adolescence: Risky but Proactive Transition to Adulthood |
| What typifies Bandura's approach? | Consistent reliance on an active agent conception of personality functioning and his predilection for testing common sense predictions with empirical data - either validated or disproved |
| What is the third force in psychology? What does it entail? | Humanism - Focus on humanity e.g. potential, happiness - Phenomenological: studies subjective experience - Introspective - Idiographic (values uniqueness) - Non-deterministic i.e. advocates free will |
| Explain Carl Rogers' Actualising Tendency. | Humans, at their core, are positive, but may become negative by not meeting certain needs. Human motivation fundamentally growth-directed and healthy. |
| In Roger's opinion, how does negative socialisation cause human problems? | Conditional positive regard: rejection of children when 'bad' causes us to lose touch with our true self and actualising tendency. Causes the development of an 'ideal self' which gives us an enduring sense of 'unfulfilment' |
| What is the underlying cause of psychopathology, according to Rogers? | Conflict between our real self and our ideal self, with the real self being evaluated as threat. This sparks defence mechanisms and defensive masks (false self) --> defensive living is unsatisfying! |
| What is unconditional positive regard? | - Parent values child irrespective of behaviour i.e. the person is distinct from their behaviour - Basis of therapy: allows person to explore their full experience and potentials to become a fully-functioning person |
| What are the characteristics of a full-functioning person? | 1. Openness to experience: receptive to both receptive/objective experience; non-censoring/defensive attitudes 2. Existential living: non-static, constant process of becoming and living fully in the moment 3. Organismic Trusting: not reliant on others 4. Experiential Freedom: not pressured by 'shoulds' 5. Creativity |
| Evaluate Rogers' Theory. | - Client-centred therapy contributed to modern techniques - Vague theoretical constructs built on personal feelings and experiences which are difficult to scientifically assess (Skinner v. critical) - V. optimistic view of human nature |
| What was Maslow's basis for rejecting the scientific method? | Science too limited for the study of human nature - too limit so much was pathological Saw a need to study psychologically healthy people in order to understand human nature --> identified colleagues and historical figures he believed to have reached their full potential and looked for common elements |
| Explain the three categories of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. | Based on deficiency motivation i.e. need to fulfil something we are deficient in Basic Needs: Physiological and safety needs Psychological Needs: belongingness, love and esteem needs Self-Fulfilment Needs: self-actualisation ("to become everything that one is capable of becoming" - Maslow (1968)) |
| How did Maslow's explanation of antisocial behaviour differ from Rogers'? | Agreed that humans are basically goodnatured and 'growth directed' but did not see all human problems as arising from socialisation --> frustration of some deficiency need |
| What element of Maslow's theory is similar to social cognitive theory? | Viewed human agency as fundamentally important "The person is his own main determinant" Maslow (1971) Choice between safety and growth |
| What was Maslow's opinion on 'normality'? | Believed in the "psychopathology of the average" --> normality is not reaching one's full potential Jonah Complex: fear of success; content at lower levels of functioning |
| What motivates a need for self-actualisation? | Requires first meeting deficiency needs Certain potentials that need to be actualised: - Aesthetic and truth |
| What characterises a self-actualised person? | 1. Efficient perception of reality 2. Accepting of themselves and others 3. Spontaneous 4. Problem centred (not self) 5. Need privacy 6. Enjoy intimate relationships 7. Act independently of culture 8. Peak experiences (intense states of harmony, joy, beauty, etc.) 9. Creative 10. Humourous |
| Evaluate Maslow's Theory. | Influential theory of motivation but there are exceptions to the hierarchy His method of identifying actualisers was flawed in that it was based on his own personal preference/bias |
| What is the influence of Humanistic Psychology overall? | - Development of positive psychology i.e. focus on happiness, character strengths and virtues - Individual and community focus - Transpersonal psychology (more spiritual) |
| Differentiate between a type and a trait. | Type: class of individuals with common characteristics Trait: enduring characteristic of a person's behaviour |
| Outline Eysenck's approach. | - Very scientific (not a fan of Freud) - Wanted to identify universal, measurable dimensions of personality --> strongly nomothetic approach (rejects unique individual) - Self-report and assessment - Statistical approach and factor analysis |
| What are the three personality dimensions Eysenck proposes? | 1. Introvert/Extrovert: stimulus shy/hungry 2. Neuroticism vs. Normality: refers to strength/degree of emotional reaction 3. Psychoticism: aggressive, cold, egocentric, impersonal, disregard for danger and social convention |
| What are Eysenck's four personality types? | 1. Choleric: high E & high N 2. Sanguine: high E 3. Melancholic: high I & high N 4. Phlegmatic: High I & v. emotionally stable |
| What does Eysenck postulate as the basis of personality? | Differences in central nervous system (CNS) --> implies a genetic basis + a relatively stable and unchanging nature However, does believe environment interacts with these biological predispositions |
| What is the function of ARAS system? | - Ascending Reticular Activation System --> controls cortical excitation and inhibition - High ARAS = introvert = stimulus shy - Low ARAS = extrovert = stimulus hungry e.g. ADHD medication actually a stimulant |
| What biological component affects the neuroticism and normality dimension? | Visceral brain system (VB) - hypothalamus + limbic system --> mediates emotional reactivity |
| What was George Kelly's personal construct theory? | - Looked for a more cognitive approach after becoming disillusioned with behaviourism - Humans essentially looking for patterns (forward looking) - Present beliefs shape our expectations (hypotheses) - People test these expectations (experiment) and revise them based on experience (Theory building) |
| Explain the Experience Cycle. | 1. Anticipation of event 2. Investment in the outcome 3. Encounter with the event 4. Confirmation or Disconfirmation of anticipation/hypothesis 5. Constructive revision of construct |
| What is the purpose of our personal constructs? | Guide our expectations, perceptions and behaviour Influences our emotions Can distort or bias our own worldview |
| What is the Fundamental Postulate? How does this explain the Placebo Effect? | "a person's processes are psychologically channelised by the way he/she anticipates events" (Kelly, 1955) Expectation of cure/benefit = actual health benefit |
| What are the seven corollaries? | 1. Construction: look for patterns/consistencies 2. Experience: alters future expectations 3. Modulation: changeability of a person's worldview (dilation vs. constriction) 4. Individuality 5. Commonality e.g. religion 6. Dichotomy: bipolar constructs 7. Choice: choice in what we believe; constructive alternativism i.e. always an alternative way to view things |
| What does Kelly say indicates and leads to psychopathology? | - Evidence consistently contradicting their worldview but they don't change it - Generalising worldview - Failure in permeability --> rigid, inflexible thinking (overly flexible thinking could also be an issue) |
| What form of therapy does this lend itself to? | - Focus on the importance of changing present constructs --> past events and causes irrelevant for change - Fixed role therapy: temporary 'new personality' for a client to allow them to experience different ways of being - Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: changing behaviours/feelings through changing thinking --> targets cognitive component |
| What are some irrational thought patterns? | Catastrophising All-or-nothing thinking Grandiosity Personalisation Over-generalisation |
| Describe Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection. | Individual variations within population can be attributed to adaptations to different environments as a way of evolutionary survival - Sexual selection: reproductive competition Artificial Selection: selective breeding |
| How does an evolutionary viewpoint inform psychology? | - Need to understand bigger picture - Current knowledge of personality may only be relevant for a short time |
| What is modularity of mind? | Awareness of environment in order to decide how to react to different things in order to survive/reproduce --> specific modules for specific adaptive purposes |
| What are the characteristics of an evolved personality? | Genetic programming but interactionist (with environment) Unconscious instinctive motivation |
| What are some points of Buss' Mating Strategy Hypothesis? | - Females tend to typically invest more in offspring than males, therefore more selective in mate choice in order to maintain protection during challenging times of gestation, childbirth, etc. --> women more attracted to wealth and resources in LT relationships - Males engage in intrasexual competition (gain and prevent access to females in order to ensure paternity) - Males look to spread their genes, thus many sexual partners and preference for ST mating (LT mating an attempt to ensure paternity) |
| What does Evolutionary Theory contribute to the nature vs. nurture debate? | Gender role stereotypes not due to socialisation, but to pre-programmed 'unconscious instinctive motivations' |
| How does evolutionary theory explain psychopathology? | Defence mechanisms developed as part of evolutionary adaptation, however, now maladaptive in a modern context |
| What are some critcisms of evolutionary theory? | - Post hoc explanations --> untestable, apparent inconsistencies - Issue of cultural diversity - Feminist theory |
| What are some issues with interpretation of case studies? | - Post hoc interpretation = uncertainty - Could be subjectively biased rather than theory-driven - Consider the effectiveness of theory-based therapy as possible support for the theory - Need to consider the entire situation (i.e. not just the personality of a single subject) |
| Which theories fall under the free-will category, and which under that of determinism? What do these terms mean? | Free-Will: human agency/choice - Humanism, Kelly's Personal Constructs Determinism: outside of individual control - Psychoanalysis, Evolutionary Theory, Behaviourism + Learning Theories (Bandura), Eysenck's Approach |
| Which theories lean towards nature and which towards nurture? What is an interactionism? | Nature: Biological (Eysenck) Nurture: Behaviourism (Skinner, Watson), social-cognitive theory (Bandura), personal construct theory Interactionism: biological factors interact with environmental factors - psychoanalysis, humanism, evolutionary (Buss) |
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