Exam 2 Psych

Frage	Antworten
Selective Attention	focusing your awareness on something while ignoring the other things around you. ex: talking to someone in a crowded, public place
Inattentional Blindness	failure to perceive something outside of the focus of your attention ex: trying to drive around a traffic accident and not noticing your child unbuckling in the back
Change Blindness	form of inattentional blindness one does not notice a change in a visual stimulus ex: not noticing a major change in a flickering picture
REM Sleep (what is it?)	The last stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, brain activity similar to being awake, faster heart/breathing rates, dreams and no moving where dreaming occurs
REM Rebound	Spending more time in REM sleep if previous nights you were deprived of it
Sleep Stages Time in Each	Stage 1- NREM (Falling asleep- Theta) occurs at beginning and end of night only lasts a few minutes (5%) Stage 2- NREM (Light Sleep) multiple rounds a night (45%) brain waves slow down but have bursts of activity Stage 3- NREM (Deep sleep- Delta) needed to wake up feeling rested hard to wake up; if woken, they will have sleep inertia (mental fog) Goes back to 2, then to REM 20-25% REM Sleep- Dreams eyes move behind eyelids when sleeping awake brain activity 25% of time asleep
Why do we Sleep?	Repair Theory: -provides ability for body to restore and rejuvenate -sleep deprivation effects mood, attention, and RT -helps learning and memory Adaptive Theory: -conserve energy -predator vs. prey -hibernation -animals sleep even when not safe to do so
Sleep Disorders	Insomnia: trouble falling asleep, staying or getting good qual. sleep Sleep Apnea: serious disorder that makes breathing stop and start while sleeping Narcolepsy: chronic neuro. disorder that controls sleep/wake cycles- falling asleep often while doing things Sleep Terrors: intense fear, crying, screaming when not fully awake Sleepwalking- walking/do things that should only happen when awake Sleep Eating: Eating when sleeping, could cause eating disorders Rem Behavior Disorder (RBD): Dream-enactment behaviors including kicking, punching, talking, emotional outbursts, etc. during sleep
Circadian Rhythms	24-hour cycles that are part of the body’s internal clock, running in the background to carry out essential functions and processes.
Jet Lag	temporary sleep disorder a combination of fatigue and other symptoms caused by travelling abruptly across different time zones.
Content of Dreams	you can only remember dreams in the middle of the night if you wake up. there are dreams in every stage but higher stages are more detailed (rem) People usually have more negative than positive dreams Usually involving people you know, not strangers
Theories of Dreaming	Wish Fulfillment (Freud): Dreams provide fulfillment for repressed wishes which meaning is usually masked -Latent (hidden/true meaning) vs manifest content (what you remember dreaming about) Activation Synthesis: Dreams are our subjective awareness of our brain signals that are generated during REM sleep -No new information, just processing -Random activation Neurocognitive Model: thinking under conditions of reduced sensory input and absence of voluntary control -dreams reflect interests, personality and worries (reflection of life) -random
Hypnosis	"cooperative social interaction in which hypnotized person responds to suggestions with changes in perception, memory and behavior. -anyone can be if they want to be
Behaviors under Hypnosis	Posthypnotic Amnesia: Inability to remember events (loss of memory) Posthypnotic Suggestion: Person will carry out suggested behavior Hypermnesia: Memory enhancement (helping someone remember something) Hypnotic Analgesia: Pain reduction
Applications for Hypnosis	Medical and dental uses Police investigations (can help memory, but not reliably) Behavioral Change Can make people believe they are not in pain
Psychoactive drugs	Drugs that affect a person's psychological state
Drug Terms: Tolerance	increasing amounts of drug are needed for the same effect
Drug Terms: Physical Dependence	body and brain chemistry adapt to the drug, you need it to feel normal
Drug Terms: Psychological Dependence	Strong desire to use the drug again, even when not experiencing withdrawal or physical need for the drug
Drug Terms: Withdrawal	unpleasant physical reaction to lack of a drug
Drug Terms: Addiction	caused by both physical and psychological dependence, but seems to be affected by both genetics and environmental factors
Types of Drugs 1- Depressants	depressants: depress or inhibit the nervous system. produces drowsiness, sedation or sleep -reduces pain and produces euphoria -physical dependence and withdrawal are common alcohol, opiates, barbiturates, tranquilizers
Types of Drugs 2- Stimulants	stimulants: stimulate nervous system -increase alertness and reduce fatigue -mildly addictive caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine
Types of Drugs 3- Hallucinogens (psychedelics)	hallucinogens: cause perpetual distortions and mood alterations -can have unpredictable affects peyote, LSD, PCP, weed, MDMA (ecstasy) stimulant + psychedelic
Classical Conditioning	INVOLUNTARY kind of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response that was originally produced by a different stimulus Image: Classical Condit. (binary/octet-stream)
Unconditioned Stimulus	something that happens in the environment that triggers an automatic response ex. loud noise
Unconditioned Response	a response that is not learned but is natural ex. child crying out of fear
Conditioned Stimulus	a learned stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response ex. a rat being put with the loud noise
Conditioned Response	a behavior that does not come naturally, but must be learned by the individual by pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. ex. crying at the rat that is now associated with sound
The Procedure for Classical Conditioning	a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus) with a stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) that naturally produces a behavior (unconditioned response).
Classical Conditioning Concepts: Stimulus Generalization	respond to a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus with response similar to the conditioned response (have to learn one stimulus to relate it to another) ex. being scared of a dog because it bit you, and it transfers to fearing other dogs as well
Classical Conditioning Concepts: Stimulus Discrimination	response to particular stimuli but not others ex. your cat being able to tell the difference between a chip bag opening a treat bag opening
Classical Conditioning Concepts: Extinction	if conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented alone, conditioned stimulus stops eliciting conditioned response ex: you stop giving the treat to the dog while asking it to do tricks, it will eventually stop doing the trick because there is no longer a treat reward
Classical Conditioning Concepts: Spontaneous Recovery	Sometimes conditioned response with reappear after extinction even though no further conditioning trials have occurred ex: the dog doing the trick even though no treat is given after a short period of time
Taste Aversion	A classically conditioned response where individuals are more likely to associate nausea with food than with other environmental stimuli. ex: getting nausea or vomiting after drinking milk and then avoiding it after the incident.
Phobias	associating something we do not fear with something we do fear so they coincide fearing the bite, not the dog but the bite makes you scared of dogs and develop a phobia
Operant Conditioning	VOLUNTARY kind of learning in which the consequences that follow some behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future Image: Operant 2 (binary/octet-stream)
Reinforcement vs. Punishment	Reinforcement (pos. vs neg.) increases likelihood of behavior happening Punishment (pos. vs neg.) decreases likelihood of behavior happening
Shaping	awarding people as they get closer and closer to desired behavior ex. giving a treat to a dog doing the steps to complete a full trick
Schedules of Reinforcement	continuous: when first shaping, more treats are given partial reinforcement: rewarding later/less as behavior is learned more. ex: giving a treat every couple of tries rather than every try
Types of Partial Reinforcement	FIXED VS. VARIABLE RATIO, FIXED VS. VARIABLE INTERVAL interval: how much TIME has passed between reinforcements ratio: NUMBER of responses between reinforcements fixed ratio- reinforcement given after a set number of responses variable ratio- reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses fixed interval- reinforcement given for a first response after a set amount of time variable interval- reinforcement is given for the first response after a variable amount of time
Positive Reinforcement	presentation of positive stimulus, leading to increase in frequency of a behavior (giving something to get good behavior) ex: giving a toy for good behavior
Negative Reinforcement	removal of a negative stimulus, leading to an increase in frequency of a behavior (taking something away to get good behavior) ex: removing a grounding period because the child worked on their homework
Positive Punishment	presentation of a negative stimulus, leading to a decrease in the frequency of behavior ex: giving a child a time out for acting out
Negative Punishment	removal of a positive stimulus, leading to a decrease in the frequency of a behavior ex: not letting a kid go outside to play because their homework was not completed
Observational Learning	learning in which a person observes and imitates a behavior from a model ex: watching an adult put on clothes, the child learns how to put on clothes
Reinforcement	consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated ex: candy to a child participating in class
Punishment	consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated ex: making a child do more chores and taking away free time
Associative Learning	form of learning that involves making connections between stimuli and behavioral responses ex: Training an animal with treats when they are good or punishments when they are bad
Nonassociative Learning	form of learning that involves a change in magnitude of an elicited response with repetition of the eliciting stimulus
Habituation	reduction in response to a specific stimulus after repeated exposures to it associated with nonassociative learni ex: Horns that honk multiple times every hour will become background noise much more quickly than the sound of an ambulance siren that only passes by once each week.
Dishabituation	The recovery of a response that has undergone habituation, typically as a result of the presentation of a novel stimulus. ex: hearing the car noises outside your window more than you usually do again, when it used to just be background noise
Sensitization	an organism becomes more sensitive, or responsive to a repeated stimulus form of nonassociative learning ex: an antidepressant becoming more effective through repeated use
Memory	the ability to retain information over time
Encoding	process of transferring information into a form that can be put into memory
Storage	process of retaining information for later use
Retrieval	recovering stored information into conscious awareness (taking things out of memory)
Atkinson and Shiffrin's Multistore Model (Sensory, Short Term, Long Term)	model proposing that information flows from our senses through three storage levels in memory sensory, short term, long term
Sensory Memory	storage level of memory that holds sensory information on the order of milliseconds to seconds
Short-Term Memory	storage level of memory where information can be held briefly, from seconds to less than a minute -allows us to think about and process information. if you are thinking about it, it goes here -small capacity - 7+/-2 chunks for verbal info -new info interferes with old
Long-Term Memory	storage level of memory where information can be held for hours to many years and potentially a lifetime -holds facts, rules, events, definitions, and experiences that someone can recall when necessary.
Iconic Memory	rapidly decaying store of VISUAL sensory information
Echoic Memory	A rapidly decaying store of AUDITORY sensory information
Chunking	process of grouping stimuli together in chunks in working memory to increase the amount of information stored in short-term memory
Working Memory	component of memory that allows for both the short-term storage and manipulation of information in real time
Maintenance Rehearsal	the straight repeating of information to memorize it
Elaborative Rehearsal	a memory and learning technique that involves the formation of associations and connections between new information and knowledge that has already been learned.
Serial Position Curve	tend to remember the first piece of information we encounter better than the rest. because: the earlier information is put into long-term memory, and later items are not
Primacy Effect	a tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented early in a list.
Recency Effect	tendency to remember stimuli more at the end
Episodic Memory	PERSONAL EXPERIENCE The explicit recollection of personal experience that requires piecing together the elements of that time and place.
Semantic Memory	CONCEPTS, FACTS Explicit memory supporting knowledge about the world, including concepts and facts.
Procedural Memory	HOW TO DO THINGS / SKILLS a type of long-term memory involved in the performance of different actions and skills. ex: riding a bike
Explicit Memory	CONSCIOUS form of memory that involves intentional and conscious remembering -recalling previous information consciously -memory fades in absence of recall
Implicit Memory	UNCONSCIOUS form of memory that occurs without intentional recollection or awareness and can be measured indirectly through the influence of prior learning on behavior. -procedural memory, priming, conditioning
Anterograde Amnesia	CANNOT FORM NEW MEMORIES inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory, preventing new long-term memories from forming.
Retrograde Amnesia	CANNOT REMEMBER PAST EVENTS form of amnesia in which access to memories prior to brain damage is impaired, but the individual can store new experiences in long-term memory.
Retroactive Interference	NEW OVER OLD new learning interferes with remembering old information ex: not being able to remember your old password after you changed it to something new
Proactive Interference	OLD OVER NEW old information interferes with learning new information ex: not remembering your new password, and instead remembering your old one
Created (Reconstructed) Memories	memories are actively and consciously rebuilt when we are trying to remember certain things ex: trying to remember something, sometimes schemas get involved and fill it what it think might've happened, resulting in a memory that didn't really happen.
Schemas	mental representation of past experiences (general knowledge about how the world works, semantic) ex: knowing where a light switch is located when it is dark
Schemas Scenes	information about spatial layout (where things are located)
Schemas Scripts	information about temporal sequence (sequence of events, order that things happen) ex: we rely on schemas when we are uncomfortable, telling us how to do things and this gets contested in areas where it is unfamiliar
Eyewitness Memory	an individual's recollection of an event, often a crime or accident of some kind, that they personally saw or experienced. the longer someone waits to say what they saw, the memory fades and some details can change. memories can be effected with certain questions, making answers different. if witness stories are different the second time around, they are discounted. this is why eyewitnesses aren't always reliable witnesses.
Misinformation Effect	The decreased accuracy of episodic memories because of information provided after the event. memories come consistent with information and it is altered ex: asking someone if they saw a gun can make someone believe a gun was there and say saw it, even if they did not. memories change because of information after
Infantile Amnesia Why?	The inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories from the first few years of life. This is due to the underdevelopment of the infant brain, which would preclude memory consolidation or to deficits in memory retrieval.

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