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| Piaget's 4 stages of development: *development happens in stages, each stage is an adaptation to overcome egocentrism. | +Sensori-motor (0-2 years: infancy) +Pre-operational (2-7 years: early childhood) +Concrete-operational(7-11:middle childhood) +Formal-operational(11+:adolescence and childhood) *products of construction and its impossible to miss a stage **the 'middle childhood years' bring a new set of skills that provide logical rules for examining and interacting with the world. |
| Define(knowledge): *Accommodation *Solipcism/Adualism *Dis-equilibrium *Equilibration *Schemes/Schemas *Cognitive conflict | *new information leads to re-evaluation of old ideas/opinions, old ideas changed or even replaced by new information. *(extreme egocentricism) actually unable to distinguish the world from self> found in infancy (formal operational) according to Piaget. *in a state of dis-equilibrium we might believe 2 concepts that cannot both be true. *people encompass Assimilation AND Accommodation to overcome state of Dis-Equilibrium. *chunks of knowledge about the world, sometimes(often) innate e.g. the 'grasping reflex'. *2 beliefs are incompatible: intra(within own mind) and inter(separate person has the conflicting belief). |
| Describe Conservation Mass task. | when a child below age 7 is shown 2 identical glasses of water & watches one poured into a taller thinner glass, they will (usually) believe there is more water in the thin glass because the water reaches higher. *C= understanding that underlying property remains invariant despite changes in appearance. |
| Describe *Transitive inference tasks. *Class inclusion tasks | *using a stick to find which of two model towers are taller, child cannot distinguish higher tower from: one is higher than stick, one is lower than stick. *an older child is more able to distinguish 'red bricks' as a sub-group (of collection of many coloured bricks)& that there would be more in total when all colours are counted together. |
| Describe the 'Three Mountains' task. | child shown a picture of 3 mountains with various objects/shapes on top (e.g. a house/cross/tree), unable to correctly identify a picture of the mountains from behind/another angle. Unable to imagine mountains in rotated view. |
| Describe the Naughty Teddy experiment (problems with Piagetian tests). (Donaldson claims that the experiments lacked human sense!) | children shown a row of counters+asked to count, experimenter scatters&asks to count again, child replies there is more. Although thought to be 'why would exp ask twice if the number had not changed', as when 'naughty teddy' scatters the counters, they do not state a higher number of counters. |
| Describe Russell (1976) Conservation of area task (problems with Piagetian tests). | Often adults make the same mistakes as a child when shown a simple shape task. Two squares and a longer rectangle, believe they are same area (square sliced in half and placed on top another creating area 4), actually slightly shorter with area 3. |
| Inference by elimination (problems with Piagetian tasks). | children ARE able to show process of elimination i.e.shown picture of Batman, Spiderman and unknown superhero & asked to identify 'Murkor'. They are able to correctly identify the unknown based on elimination of ones they do know. |
| Vygotsky's zone of proximal development | with interaction with more competent individuals you have a receptive grasp of their knowledge etc. |
| Constructivism (Piaget) versus Social-Constructivism (Vygotsky) | *constructivism stresses the endogenous control of cognitive development & attributes development to personal discovery NOT achieved by another person helping, learning driven by own curiosity (perception is subordinate to action) *stresses exogenous influences- driven by a need for social interaction attributing development to a process of social construction involving mentors (adults) that guide through steps of learning, learning driven by need for social interaction |
| Russell (1982) Inter-cognitive conflict | *child shown 2 pencils identical length, independent measure of social dominance, both agree pencils same length after being moved (typical conservation task), then 1 child suddenly creates non-conserving view & other child was likely to agree regardless of dominant/submissive role. *R suggested they're in zone of proximal development, in this case supporting SOCIAL role in development of conservation concept. |
| Piagetian tasks comparing adolescent and child quality of formal-operational thinking | *children asked to solve how quickly a pendulum oscillates by doing some experiments using: weight, length, force and height. *(A) systematically manipulate one factor while holding the rest constant thus experiments were not confounded *(pre-A) prone to value changing 2 simultaneous factors thus confounded the experiment producing un-interpretable data |
| Johnson-Laird & Wason (1972) card choice task | [E] [K] [4] [7] *If a card has a vowel on one side then it has an even number on the other. (E supports and 7 disproves) content of problem determines success in approach suggests you are concrete or probable-operational. |
| Elkind (1966) adolescent egocentrism | *a focus on mental life becomes excessive *Illusion of transparency- an illusion that others can read your mind and see inside of you thinking about you all of the time *personal fable- I have a special purpose on earth so feeling of vulnerability leads to RISK TAKING *imagining an audience & self-consciousness |
| (intelligence) Define: *Genotype *Phenotype *Degree of relatedness *crystallised and fluid intelligence *The Flynn effect *confluence theory | -an organism's full hereditary information -actual observed properties such as morphology/development/behaviour -how well 2 relatives comparatively do on an IQ test (& how close their genetic material is) -crystallised intelligence increases but fluid does not. -an improved IQ score performance over time (general population) -children with more siblings will have a lower IQ |
| (intelligence) Describe: *Co-variance between inheritance & environment *Transactional process | -intelligent children tend to have intelligent parents who provide an enriched environment -intelligent children provoke an intelligent response that potentially feeds their development even further |
| List some environmental factors of children's intelligence: | -environment in womb -diet and nutrition -family environment -number of siblings + birth order |
| Elardo et al. (1975) quality of family environment (intelligence) | -children observed at 6 months & 24 months (IQ tested at 3 & 4.5 years) -rating of family when child was aged 24mnths correlated with IQ at 3yrs= 0.7 -rating at age 6mnths correlated IQ at 4.5 yrs= 0.4 |
| Gibson & Walk (1960) babies depth perception | -mother called from shallow/deep end, 8mnths old crawled to shallow side but NOT over deep side -NOT result of binocular parallax because even babies with eye-patch behave in same way (perhaps result of 'motion parallax' *(babies only just started crawling) |
| *Fogel & Melson (1988) eye fixation *Bower (1982) mask *Slater, Mattock and Bremner (1991) object recognition | *1-2 month old babies fixate on the eyes of a photograph (of the face) *even a crude mask is enough to elicit a baby's smile *children as little as 2 days old could recognise the same object in different orientations. |
| Slater at al. (1990) infant depth/distance perception | -shown cue at various distances side by side, different sizes so actually project same image size onto retina. -only way they could discriminate between them was how far away they were- showed infants COULD see depth |
| Ghim (1990) infant shape discrimination | habituated infants to a square shape, then shown *above(plus triangle), wanted to look at 'triangle' because they could detect the square. This shows they could detect subjective contour. |
| Thouless (1931) intellectual realism plate drawing | -placed a plate in front of pt & asked to draw out EXACTLY how it looked to them from where they were standing -actually drew it 'more round' and fatter because knowledge of circular plate actually distorts vision |
| Intraub (1990) and Cohen & Bennett (1997) boundary extension | *pts shown a scene (cropped) asked to draw photo exactly as they saw-knowledge of the scene causes pts extend past boundary showing intellectual realism.*when they are shown a drawing of the scene, they still extend the boundary. *asked pts to draw photos(1 of woman's face & 1 industrial unit) 2 conditions: photo on table w/tracing paper, photo pinned on wall draw what can see -tracing= very well& coloured light+ shade -wall= shows intellectual realism i.e. drew corners of unit at right angles & drew the top of woman's hair! |
| Freeman & Janikoun (1972) intellectual realism cups | -children shown a cup from 2 angles, one had a flower on the front, one showed the handle -children sat at table& asked to draw cup -children below 7 drew the handle but not flower, older children did the opposite (drew features they know NOT what they could actually see). |
| Crook (1984) intellectual realism line continuation | -child shown apple, experimenter skewed apple with knitting needle (2 ends of needle visible) -children asked to draw, is it IR or just drawing ability to draw the line VISIBLE in middle of apple? *instead of 1 needle all way through, pushed 2 half needles in each side, now image= children did not draw the same so shows drawing continuous line IS intellectual realism & not because of low artistic ability. |
| Light & Mackintosh (1980) house beaker intellectual realism | -children sat and shown objects i.e. a model of a house inside a glass beaker or 2nd condition where house was behind glass beaker (essentially see exact same thing) -told to draw what they see, 2nd group drew objects separately despite seeing same thing because of knowledge of scene |
| Soley & Haigh (1958) children's preference for drawing human figures | *pole figures! -asked to draw a nice man+ a nasty man, drew the nice man large and nasty man small- why? -nice= preference so draw larger because they want to see him more? -also children would draw Santa larger + larger as Christmas approaches (cultural) |
| Wimmer & Perner (1983) unexpected transfer test | - present a story (cartoon/video etc) to children i.e. Max stores some chocolate in the cupboard, while he is out playing his mother grates some of the chocolate into a cake and puts the chocolate into the fridge. -ask the children 'where will Max look for the chocolate?' -children have to predict behaviour, if they can identify that Max is harbouring a false belief about the location of chocolate then they have acquired a THEORY OF MIND (typically over the age of 4) |
| Describe the deceptive box test/ state-change task. | *(tackles claims that unexpected transfer test= children difficulty understanding story) *shown familiar object i.e. empty Smarties tube& asked to guess what was inside, actually a pencil inside, then asked 'what will your friend Jack think is inside?' *children under age of 4 tended to say pencil- unable to acknowledge false/different belief *Gopnik altered Q- 'before we opened tube, what did you think was inside?' Younger than 4 were incapable of even acknowledging their OWN false belief |
| Lewis et al. (1994) Radical conceptual shift | 3 year olds do not understand the narrative of the task- that's why they do not appear to acknowledge false beliefs. |
| Onishi & Baillargeon (2005) evidence of theory of mind below age 4? | *protagonist moves object into a yellow box & leaves scene, child now watches as object is moved into opposite box by another person- toddlers actually demonstrate a change in autonomic response (surprise) when protagonist guesses box correctly (she should have had a false belief) |
| Mitchell et al. (1996) do adults sometimes have difficulty separating their own belief from other people's | *pts shown video/cartoon of protagonist(Kevin) cleaning his kitchen, when dusting a shelf he notices some juice in a jug- he carries on working. *he goes away for a while & returns with his friend Rebecca to have lunch, when discussing what they are going to drink Rebecca announces that there is some MILK in the jug. Kev faces conflicting information. *ask observing adult- they say Kev because they saw with him that there was juice in the jug however it is suggested that you should maybe believe the most recent available information as opposed to just what we see. R may represent a change/update to info? *second condition- narrator reveals that R actually replaced the juice with milk, pts then judged that Kev believed there was milk, but were not entirely able to separate their own opinion from Kev's. |
| Baron-Cohen et al. (1985) Children with autism and theory of mind? | *simplified deceptive box test to children with autism *Sally puts her ball in a box& then leaves, while she is away Anne puts the ball in the bag, Sally returns for her ball- where will she look? *80% of children with autism gave an incorrect judgement *they suffer with naivety & poor communications (don't know how to adjust their information within a conversation)*positive corr between passing a false belief test and verbal mental age of autistic children *however some autistic children DO pass false belief tests (majority don't) |
| Frith (1989) Weak central coherence theory | *on observing heightened performance mainly on embedded figures test (find the triangle within geometric drawing of an object) *WCC= inability to see the big picture . *autism perform much better and faster than controls. People without autism have a strong central coherence (tendency to apprehend things globally so are unable to see small parts) *can understand why autism difficulty with language, words need to be understood to understand whole meaning- *they cannot put together all parts of meaning in a situation leading to naivety |
| Describe Williams syndrome | *defined: fragile + underweight, large eyes, low bridge of nose, widely spaced teeth, heart abnormalities, hormonal/ digestive/ neurological problems (learning difficulties) *very unlike autism: good eye contact, very engaging, highly sociable and talkative *however: poor visuo-spatial abilities, poor memory for layout of physical environment *caused by truncation of chromosome 7 & occurs 1:10,000 |
| **Describe Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) *Barkley (1997) ADHD as a cognitive disorder *ADHD as a 'reward & motivation disorder' | *defined: inattention, hyperactivity, & impulsiveness *prevalent 2:100 & affected by environmental factors such as diet (McCann et al. 2007) *problems with executive functions (located frontal lobe syndrome)- functions i.e. what to think about & planning/decisions are impaired for ADHD sufferers. *problems with delayed gratification, not able to think about future rewards/ organise behaviours to achieve bigger future rewards- want immediate gratification- |
| Describe Cerebral Palsy | *defined: poor movement control (due to damaged motor cortex/connections etc.) & possibly: problems with vision/hearing, heightened sensitivity to touch, speech impediment, learning disabilities, risk of epileptic seizures(30%) etc. *damage to the brain caused by hypoxia (blood supply compromised i.e. problems with placenta, trauma at birth, premature birth etc.) *occurs 2:1000 |
| Describe (developmental) language disorders | *language areas of the brain implicated in some of these disorders (Broca's/ Wernicke's areas etc.) *prevalent 7:100 &more common in boys than girls |
| Schaffer (2003) nature and functions of attachments | -selective (focused on specific individuals) -involve physical proximity seeking -they provide comfort & security -produce separation upset when the 'tie' is severed and proximity cannot be obtained |
| Schaffer (2003) 4 stages of attachment development | *pre-attachment(0-2) indiscriminate social responsiveness *attachment-in-the-making(2-7) learning the basic rules of interaction *clear-cut-attachment(7-24) separation protest, wariness of strangers, intentional communication *goal-corrected-partnership(24+) r/ships more 2 sided, children understand parents' needs |
| Bowlby studied children that were raised in an orphanage or placed in a hospital during a medical outbreak (very little human contact and no/severed attachment with primary care giver) *consequences of this separation? *Rutter (1972) | -failure to smile at a face -poor appetite (no matter how desirable the food) -failure to gain weight (irrespective of how nourishing the food is) -sleeping badly -lower IQ *argue that separation is blamed in many cases where in fact the CAUSE of separation was responsible for ensuing difficulties in adjustment. |
| Lorenz critical period | Geese are programmed to attach shortly after hatching to the first conspicuous moving object (mother) |
| Lester (1974) attachment and object permanence | attachment behaviours coincide with development & understanding the permanence of the world, children eventually understand the reality of the attachment figure i.e. the idea that she may be in another place but is still existing. |
| Define: *'monotropy' (according to Bowlby) *micro-genetic approaches *motion parallax *binocular parallax | *attachment can only happen to 1 attachment figure. *repeated observations over a period of weeks or months. *relative movement of objects near and far gives indication of position *information projected to each eye is slightly different gives indication of space |
| Describe the stages of the Strange Situation (Meins, 2003) | 1. mother + baby in room 2. mother and baby alone, baby free to explore 3. stranger enters, sits down, talks to mother and then tries to engage with baby in play 4. mother leaves, stranger + baby alone 5. first reunion, mother returns and stranger leaves, mother settles the baby if necessary and tries to withdraw to her chair. 6. mother leaves, baby alone. 7. stranger returns and tries to settle baby (if necessary) & withdraws to her chair 8. second reunion, mother returns and stranger leaves, mother settles baby (if necessary) and tries to withdraw to her chair) |
| Describe a child with secure attachment type (during the Strange Situation) | child explores the room, upset by the mother's departure and welcomes her return. |
| Describe 3 insecure attachment types of children during the Strange Situation | *Avoidant- aloof with mother when in room, fail to greet her on return. *Resistant- clingy, upset by departure & approaches for comfort but resists it when offered. *Disorganised- behaves in contradictory way, no system of coping with stress, baby seems to want comfort from mother but also feels wary of her. |
| Describe the internal working model- Main et al. (1985) | -a basis for all future relationships -development is shaped by child's proximity-seeking experiences and how these are met -differences exist because of different attachment types during childhood -may become stable models but are by no means immune to influence by further relationships -provide rules to the individual to guide both behaviour and feeling in relation to significant others, make it possible to forecast & interpret other person's behaviour & so plan one's own behaviour in response. |
| George et al. (1985) how do adults of different attachment types assess their childhood relationships | *(secure) give well balanced account of childhood, r/ships are valued. *(avoidant) dismissing, deny the importance of attachment, claim to be unable to remember much about childhood. *(resistant) unable to move on, still over-involved with issues relating to early attachment. *(disorganised) unresolved, not able to resolve feelings relating to an early difficulty with attachment, perhaps arising from divorce/death of a caregiver. |
| Belsky et al. (1996) - consequence of different attachment types | 3 year olds watched a puppet show and then recalled what the show was about, secure tended to remember positive events while insecure tended to remember negative. |
| Fonagy et al. (1991) consequences of different attachment types | those identified as avoidant tended to have children to have children that were also avoidant, and the same for resistant parents. |
| Hamlin et al. (2007) geometric shapes personality story | babies aged 6 & 10 mnths watched a screen where geometric shapes ('humanised'- given faces) provide a test of common sense, red circle struggled to climb a mountain when along came yellow triangle to help (altruistic), next a blue square that stopped circle climbing (antisocial & uncooperative), researcher did it this way to show principles to children through basic properties, eye movements were recorded, spend more time looking at (preference) the 'helper' triangle, controlled colour & shape across conditions to ensure not bias (simply prefer yellow/triangles already). |
| study/example for Piaget's 2 stages of moral development (H&A) | *children made judgements about relative naughtiness of 2 boys: *One made a small stain on the table cloth after meddling despite being forbidden to go near the desk *Other made a large stain when trying to be helpful by tidying things away * showed that children below 7 years tended to judge the second to be more naughty because of scale of damage *children>7 tended to judge 1st more naughty because weighed boy's intentions against level of damage caused *younger children were in HETERONOMOUS stage *older were AUTONOMOUS stage |
| Hart et al. (2003) Kolberg's stages | people who are highly educated and/or have high IQ tend to be identified at one of the higher stages |
| Hart et al. (1991) & Kochanska (1991) Kolberg's stages | *children who are effective in regulating their own emotions tend to progress through the stages more rapidly than children who are not so effective in emotion regulation *children who had parents that reasoned with them at age 2 showed more advanced moral reasoning at age 10 |
| Discuss factors that contribute to antisocial behaviour | *style of parenting (Coie& Dodge, 1998) *peer rejection (Coie& Dodge, 1998) *lack of emotional control (Caspi et al., 1995) *neurological damage (Moffitt et al., 1996) |
| Eron (1987) watching violent TV | *8 year olds who stated they liked violent TV programmes were rated by peers as being most aggressive *most aggressive children rated violent programmes as being 'lifelike' *watching violent TV at age 8 correlated with ratings of aggression at 19, and antisocial behaviour at age 30 (drink-driving, convictions, domestic violence) *suggests that there is a sensitive period between 8 and 12, when watching violence has marked impact on social development. *when it was explained that TV programmes create the illusion of violence when in fact nobody gets hurt, it seemed to help the children become less violent. |
| Thomas et al. (1977) how can violent TV de-sensitise aggression? | protagonists don't seem to suffer much in TV (belief that violence is okay and not that dangerous!) this can also heighten fear that the world is dangerous which leads people to behave aggressively in anticipation. *when children watch pre-schoolers squabbling can increase incidence of arguments in real life- |
| Describe Pavlov's theory of 'psychic learning' | he noticed that although his dogs would salivate at the smell/sight of food, they would also salivate before those stimuli were presented as if they were psychic and knew it was happening. In actual fact they had learned the exact stages/processes that would lead to the presentation of food. |
| Describe the 'A not B' error: *relates to object permanence! | hide a rattle under a red cloth 3 times, the next time you hide it under a yellow cloth in clear sight (obviously show where you are putting it) child still looks under the red cloth because they remember finding it there last time! *from 12-18 mnths likely to pass the task, but signs of deep-seated egocentricism might persist. Classic example to understand invisible displacement of an object. |
| Describe 'Hans' numerical ability'? | Hans was a horse who delighted audiences in Germany with his mathematical ability. (5+3=?)- tapped his hoof on the ground a requisite number of times. *As it turns out his trainer gave subtle signs, that even he was not aware of: signs he should stop/ build up tension & applause of audience. *horse was socially attunes (highlights need for exp control when investigating animal skills) |
| Describe Hughes (1975) Policeman study | *asked children to play hide and seek *2 intersecting walls forming 4 quadrants labelled A-D. Introduced 2 policeman dolls overlooking quadrants A-B& B-D, the child overlooked quadrant C-D. Child was told of naughty boy doll trying to avoid being caught, instructed to hide the doll where he could not be seen by policeman. 90% children between 3-5 placed doll in C (correct) recognised that a quadrant they could see that policeman could not. *implies children are not entirely egocentric as can separate their own views from the dolls. |
| Describe Acquired and Developmental dyslexia: | Acquired dyslexia (Alexia) results from brain injury whereas developmental dyslexia has a genetic basis. |
| Describe Autism (behavioural effects, onset etc.) * Ropar & Mitchell (2002) autism & knowledge | *Individuals with autism exhibit the ‘triad of impairments’: impairment in social behaviour and relatedness to others, impairment in verbal and nonverbal communication, narrowing of interests coupled with resistance to change. *Autism is thought to have an ‘organic’ basis. *“autism is caused by emotionally cold parenting” is a common myth. *the visual perception of children with autism was least influenced by learned knowledge. |
| What are level 1 and 2 of perspective taking: | (!)- understanding that an obstacle prevents another person seeing what you can see. (2)- understanding how an object looks from a vantage point other than your own. |
| Describe the Wisconsin card sorting task: | number of stimulus cards are presented to the pt, they are told to match the cards but not HOW to match them, however they are told whether a particular match is right/wrong. *It is a test of inflexibility of thought. |
| Describe infants' numerical ability and how it further develops: | *infants display an understanding of numerical quantities and relations from the age of 5 months *there are 2 systems involved in numerical understanding: one innate system and one formal system of mathematics conveyed by education |
| Define(speech): *morpheme *phoneme *overregularisation *overextension *connectionism *infant-directed talk *Holophrases | *the sound that is made when a person utters a word *the smallest unit of speech sounds (ah, buh, cuh, duh, eh) *the regular ways of modifying/ connecting words are mistakenly applied to words require irregular mods/ connections. *when child uses single name to several things inconsistent with adult usage. *the use of artificial intelligence to produce speech/language *adults use shorter/simpler sentences when speaking to children/babies *In the early stages of language acquisition, babies utter single words in combination with gestures to communicate sentence-like-meaning. |
| What are LAD and LASS? | LAD stands for Language Acquisition Device which according to Chomsky is vital for the development of universal grammar. LASS stands for Language Acquisition Support System refers to the importance of the child's social support network which works in conjunction with innate LAD to encourage language development. |
| Define: *moral subjectivist (Piaget moral stories) *moral realism *discuss the potential recency effect in Piaget moral task? *how did children below 6/7 judge? *what/when is Bowlby's critical period? | *a child who judges act according to intent of actor rather than damage caused. *child neglects intent and focuses on the extent of damage. *information about the intention appears at beginning of the story and damage at the end, see if they refer back to intention & see it as important, so prevent recency imitating this. *tended to judge the relative naughtiness of protagonists according to the scale of damage caused. *between 6 mnths and 4 yrs of age important time for bond to be formed to achieve secure attachment, *can apparently only attach to 1 person at this time . |
| Describe Hoffman's theory on child moral development: | *he disagrees with Piaget and states that babies find emotions such as laughing/crying 'contagious', this forms a basis for empathy and empathetic concern drives prosocial behaviour and morality. *in the first year of an infant's life they develop an awareness of the independent existence of other people, and thus have a basic level of empathy. *by the age of 10 children understand the plight of individuals and group (i.e. mankind in comparison to just themselves- environmental issues?) |
| What 2 mechanisms do we have for perceiving objects as they move further away? | *size constancy mechanism allows us to understand that an object is the same size even though it appears smaller as it recedes into the distance. *shape constancy mechanism allows us to see that an object is the same shape even though it looks different as we take up different vantage points. |
| General facts (IQ/intelligence) *correlation of IQ between monozygotic twins reared apart? *2 thirds of population have an IQ between _ and _. *how many words (roughly) are in a child's vocabulary of age 2 and then 6. *what is the Raven's progressive matrices? | *0.7 *85 and 115 *300 at age 2, 14000 at age 6 *a non-verbal IQ test that is intended to be culturally fair |
| What are the 3 types of egocentric speech identified by Piaget? | *repetition (children sometimes repeat words/phrases immediately after they are said to them as an echo *for no reason) *individual monologue (young children sometimes make a running commentary on a task they were engrossed with, as if thinking aloud) *collective monologue (may intend to communicate with others but the egocentric nature of his speech prevents anyone else from understanding)- apparently 30-40% of 5-year-olds speech falls into category of collective monologue. |
| What is joint attention, and does it support children's learning? *Butterworth (1981) geometry *Baldwin & Moses (1994) vocabulary | *the shared focus of two individuals on an object. The child will alert the adult to the object- they will then both share the event/object engaging in mental focus discussion etc. *supports the process by which children learn from their caregivers what words are associated with what objects etc. *there is an early ability to calculate the geometry of another person's direction of gaze. *vocabulary depends greatly on a capacity for joint attention. |
| Define: *Stereopsis *Visual Acuity | *refers to the perception of depth and 3D structure obtained on the basis of visual information deriving from 2 eyes & binocular vision. *the clarity of vision- dependent on optical and neural factors (I) the sharpness of retinal focus (ii) health & functioning of retina and (iii) sensitivity of interpretative faculty of the brain. **Visual Acuity usually improves to normal adult range within first year of life. |
| What is inter-modal mapping? | the inborn ability to recognise stimuli using a sense different from the one it was originally presented to. This implies that stimuli are represented universally in the brain and available to all senses, they do not need to be learned by classical conditioning. *children show inter-modal mapping when them imitate the facial expressions of an adult. |
| *Violation-of-expectation-paradigm *Wynn (1992) infants numerical ability *Simon, Hespos, & Rochat (1995) | *testing an infants' perception of permanence i.e. test reactions when shown something logically impossible . *study on whether young infants have an incipient understanding of quantity. Infants were shown the results of simple arithmetic operations and it was found that infants looked younger at impossible events (incorrect) rather than possible. *supported Wynn's interpretation- numerical ability emerges very early in childhood, however the conditions in Wynn's study violate the rules of the physical world. |
| Rizzolatti & Craighero (2004) the mirror-neuron hypothesis | A neuron fires both when an animal acts and when they observe the same action performed by another. Thus the neurons 'mirrors' the behaviour of another. *explains why yawning is contagious because it predicts that it is easy for a person to imagine being in the same situation as someone they are observing, neurons in one brain resonate with those in another. |
| Mallick & McCandles (1966) frustration and aggression | identified that frustration does not give rise to aggression if children were helped to understand that there was a good reason as to why they were obstructed in trying to obtain a goal. |
| List Kohlberg's 6 stages of moral development: *pre-conventional *conventional *post-conventional | 1. Obedience & punishment 2. Individualism & exchange 3. Good interpersonal relationships 4. Maintaining the social order 5. Social contract and individual rights 6. Universal principles |
| Describe each moral stage: 1. Obedience & punishment 2. Individualism & exchange 3. Good interpersonal relationship 4. Maintaining the social order 5. Social contract and individual rights 6. Universal principles | *individual behaves good in order to avoid punishment. *children recognise that there is not just one right view handed down by authority (different individuals have different views). *individual is good in order to seem good to another person (approval). *individual is aware of rules of society- judgements concern obeying rules to uphold law & avoid guilt. *individual aware that while laws exist for good of greatest number (but not everyone). *developed own set of rules (may not fit law), prepared to defend own rules even if going against society. |
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