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| Frage | Antworten |
| PSYCHOLOGY A2 UNIT 3 | RELATIONSHIPS: |
| FORMATION | BYRNE & CLORE (1970) REWARD NEED SATISFACTION (RNS) . Based on classical and operant conditioning, of being attracted to others for what they offer. . Classical = pleasure - we learn positive associations & repeat the behaviour to achieve again Operant = Rewards - we repeat the behaviour that achieves achieve outcomes . The rewards satisfy out unmet needs and mutual attraction occurs when each met each others needs . We are driven to seek the rewarding stimuli and avoid the punishing stimuli BYRNE, CLORE AND SMEATON SIMILARITY THEORY Two stages to forming a relationship: 1. Dissimilarity - exclude people with different attitudes and personalities 2. Similar - chose from the remaining Attitude Alignment - Partners modify to become more similar |
| A02 | :) Research Support . May & Hamilton - Rate male attractiveness with Rock (happy), None (neutral) or Avant-Grande (uphappy) music. Found rock = better rating = ^ External Reliability :) Practical Application . Relationship Counsellors use RNS to refocus on the positive associations = ^ External Validity :( Methodological Criticism . Lab studies -> demand characteristics & artificial tasks = ↓ external validity :( Ethnocentric Although cultures have different rewards and needs, the western methods and findings are applied = ↓ external validity :( Reductionism . The theory suggests we are self-centred and only form relationships based on pleasure = ↓ external validity :( Over-simplistic . The theory explains complex behaviours by reducing them into rewards and associations = ↓ external validity & reductionism |
| MAINTENANCE | THIBAUT AND KELLEY SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY . An economic theory, placing human behaviours into a business like structure . A method of weighing up if the current or potential relationships will be more successful ^ profit / ↓ costs until profit out-weights costs COMPARISON LEVEL Weighs up potential increase in rewards against the costs of the current relationships WALSTER EQUITY THEORY Equity is subjective and strive to achieve in a relationship as inequity are seen as unfair and to cause distress. However, can work is unbalanced |
| A02 | :) Research Support . Rusbult - Heterosexual uni students, 7 months, questionnaires every few weeks Found - Satisfaction and investments predicted the commitment and future of relationship = ^ external reliability :) Practical Application . Explains domestic violence, Rusbult - investment model (if ^ investment = ↓ breakdown) = ^ external validity :) Universal Application . Yelsma - 28 Indian arranged couples vs 38 american, found arranged = ^ happier because of economic alliance = ^ external validity :( Methodological Criticism . Questionnaires/Interviews = subject to social desirability because want relationship to look good = ↓ internal validity - However, also in naturalistic environments = :) :( Reductionistic Doesn't apply to all relationships Clark & Mills = communal and exchange = SET only exchange = ↓ external validity |
| BREAKDOWN | DUCK MODEL OF RELATIONSHIP DISSOLUTION Three categories of relationship dissolution . Pre-existing = predestined incompatibility . Mechanical Failure = can't live together . Sudden Death = Betrayal / infidelity PROCESS OF BREAKDOWN; 1. Intrapsychic - One/both experience dissatisfaction 2. Dyadic - express dissatisfaction 3. Social - socially expressed, external help 4. Grave-dressing - Place blame on each other Research Support: LEE 112 romantic relationships 1. Dissatisfaction 2. Exposure 3. Negotiation - discussion 4. Resolution - attempt to repair 5. Termination - end (not all go through all five) |
| AO2 | :) Research Support . LEE = similar = ^ external reliability :) Practical Application . Duck's model can explain feelings of couples and allow a healthy breakdown or resolution = ^ external validity :( Methodological Criticism . Subject to social desirability, manipulation of answers to look good = ↓ internal validity :( Methodological Criticism Retrospective data, reply on recall of past events and emotions. = questionable validity :( Ethnocentric Collectivistic cultures e.g. Indian = 1% divorce rate = ↓ external validity :( Individual Differences Relationships do not follow the same pattern and cannot be generalised to one type Clark = two types = ↓ external validity |
| SEXUAL SELECTION THEORY | DARWIN Sexual Selection = a type of natural selection that involves outperforming rivals and successful conception. Allowing characteristics to pass through genes Inter-sexual selection (females) Having preferences of the opposite sex leads to an increase of that characteristic E.g. Humans became taller and stronger Dimorphism = males 12-15% taller than females Intra-sexual selection (males) Competing in order to have prime access to the opposite sex. Which then passes on the gene that helped them win Short-Term (Males) Research shows that males prefer sex earlier on in the relationship and casual sex. Because they can pass on multiple genes instead of females which is one per. 9 months-1 year Buss = why males have lower standards and become disinterested after sex Long-term (both) Both sexes heavily invest into their offspring, careful choosing the correct partner to pass on the genes with. E.g. why males value fertility and youth and females valuing material wealth |
| AO2 | :) Supporting Research Waynford and Dunbar - Lonely heart ads 479 males, 402 females. Males: 1.7x ^ expression of material wealth 2x ^ likely to express physical attractiveness Females: 4.5x ^ demand of wealth, even more in fertile years, 20-39 = ^ external validity :) Practical Application Allows dating sites to use the information to suggest information for the clients to use in order to have a successful service = ^ external validity :( Methodological Criticism Although quick and easy to evaluate information from, the dating websites do not indicate a full understanding of what the opposite sex is looking for. = ↓ external validity :( Ethnocentric Stone - 36 cultures, 10,000 Pp ↓ socio-economic develop = ^ healthy characteristics ^ developed = ^ mutual attraction = ↓ external validity :( Outdated Strassberg & Holty - 'Female seeking male', 50% more interest if "independent, successful, ambitious" than "slim, attractive" = needs more research due to economic development and cultural changes :( Reductionism no indication of non-heterosexual |
| PARENTAL INVESTMENT | TRIVERS How parents invest into their offspring Females = already invest more with pre-pregnancy, pregnancy and post pregnancy. With no female model, the child's survival rate dramatically drops Therefore, females tend to be choosier when selecting their mates. Daly & Wilson: Men can opt out in ways a female cannot Symons: Only sperm and copulation needed In consequence, this lead to the ^ of extramarital affairs Bakes & Bellis: 14% of popular from ext. marital affairs because women want resources from a faithful partner but also physical genes (men are seen to just want sex) Paternal: Therefore, males have a need to protect themselves from cuckoldry. As they heavily invest into their offspring but want it to be their genetics. Miller: Men have a ^ concern of infidelity because women are certain the offspring is theirs (Sexual Jealousy) Emotional Jealousy: Females having a fear of their resources being diverted into another offspring |
| AO2 | :) Research Support: BUSS: Gave US students a scenario of sexual or emotional jealousy and measured the psychological response of females and males (distress) Males = sexual, Females = Emotional = External Reliability :) Practical Application Governments & Health care give single women more support if they lack the resources from another. = ^ external validity :( Methodological Criticism Based on questionnaires/interviews which are subject to social desirability = Questioned validity :( Ethnocentric Tapp = Na Tribe, raised by uncles and no support from real fathers no western method wouldn't apply = ↓ external validity :( Reductionism The theory is outdated as there is no implications of societal changes, such as the nuclear family no longer being dominant (e.g. adoption, single families) :( Falsifiable The theory biologically cannot be tested as men's behaviour cannot be measure as they cannot become pregnant Popper: Need to test = hard to draw valid conclusions |
| INFLUENCE OF CHILDHOOD ATTACHMENTS | Early childhood experiences are seen to shape our adult relationships Bowlby: "Internal working model" that was developed in childhood to determine future relationships Two attachment styles: 1. Self-esteem = attitudes towards ourselves 2. interpersonal-trust = attitudes of others AINSWORTH: Secure (B) = trusting -> trust and long-lasting relationships Avoidant (A) = distant, no intimacy -> difficult to trust and no intimacy Resistant (C) = PCG is inconsistent -> worry partners will reject Disorganised (D) = Confused, A and C -> chaotic, not trusting, abusive Waters = retest 20 years later (first 12 months) and 72% adults given same attachment style - Proving it is an internal working model |
| AO2 | :) Research Support Hazan & Shaver = 600 questionnaires, US newspaper about love styles (Aim to see if attachment and love styles were the same) Findings = 56% secure, 24% avoidant, 20% resistant - all these attachment styles differed in love styles = ^ external reliability :) Practical Application Paternity rights to influence the development of secure attachments as research highlighted secure as the healthiest = ^ external validity :( Methodological Criticism Questionnaires = easy to analyse but subject to social desirability and rely on retrospective events = Questionable validity :( Cultural Bias The strange situation is criticised of cultural bias amongst sub-cultures. E.g. not taking parental differences into account - religion = ↓ external validity :( Reductionism The theory ignores implications of life events. Lewis = divorce plays a major role on children's attachments, no matter the attachment style = ↓ internal validity :( Cannot test The theory cannot be tested within controlled environments because it breaks protection from h |
| CULTURAL DIFFERENCES | Differences in beliefs about mate selection e.g. collectivistic = influenced by other's opinions Moghaddam: Western = temporary and voluntary Non-western = permanent and involuntary Physical Attractiveness: Responsible for formation, seen as more important in western Cunningham = large neonate eyes, symmetry, small nose and groomed hair is attractive in all cultures Stone = 36 cultures, 10,000 Pp ↓ developed = attracted to characteristics which indicate health ^ developed = mutual attraction Divorce: Universal concept, seen more in western why: society influence, e.g. indians are influenced to not value divorce where as not as valued in Western and female independency is not an option in non-western India = 1% / USA = 50% |
| AO2 | :) Supporting Research Yelsma - 28 indian arranged vs 38 usa Findings: Arranged = happier 90% of indian couples = arranged - why divorce is so low = ^ external reliability :) Practical Application Knowledge to relationship counsellors on how to approach advice for different cultures = ^ external validity :( Methodological Criticism Questionnaires and interviews = subject to social desirability and depend on retrospective data = questionable validity :( Cultural Bias Techniques used to measure were designed and tested in America Lonner "american are norm to psychological testing" = ↓ internal validity :( Reductionism Doesn't take into account sub-cultures. E.g the Amish are apart of the American culture, which do not believe in Divorce yet are not in the analysis = ↓ external validity :) Globalisation However, the research does show the current changes within society. Such as the influence of media consumerism on people and how that effects relationships due to more exposure = ^ external validity |
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