Ecology Midterm 2

Frage	Antworten
Classical Conditioning	Before conditioning 1. unconditioned stimulus (food) ---> unconditioned response (salivation) 2. neural stimulus (whistle) ----> no conditioned response (no salivation) After conditioning 1. (whistle + food) ---> unconditioned response 2. conditioned stimulus (whistle) ---> conditioned response (salivation)
Deer mice, owls and habitat familiarity	?
Four ways that animals can adapt to their environment	?
Evolution	Ultimate (over generation) The development of something, especially from a simple to a more complex form.
Ontogeny	Development Proximate (within a lifetime) How did this animal develop?
Immediate Causation	Proximate (within a lifetime) Mechanism "Causing some observed response"
Function	Adaptive value Ultimate (over generations) Usefulness in traits that help organisms survive.
Function of gene expression	(Mechanisms of Behavior) Influences behavior and vise versa
Genetic Variation	Explains some variations in behavior
Function of polymorphism	Maintained due to negative frequency dependent selection. -Two or more clearly different morphs or forms -Can maintain two phenotype expressions indefinitely.
Loci (Locus)	The specific location or position of a genes DNA sequence, on a chromosome
Inbred Lines	Mice that were good at mazes (bright mice) were inbred as were mice that were bad at mazes (so called dull mice). Raised in restricted environment, normal environment, and an enriched environment. (shows that if mice are raised in a normal or enriched environment they got better at mazes.)
Homogeneous Genes	You get a bunch of deleterious recessives (closley related) genes but once you weed out the birth defects, they are alright.
Think, then talk Based on the results from a cross, fostering study of masked boobies (siblicidal) and blue-footed boobies (not siblicidal), do differences in parental behavior, offspring behavior, or both contribute to the differences between the species?	The researchers switched the eggs to see whether this behavior was a maternal affect or genetic affect. (Both maternal effect and genetic effects)
Example of a cross-fostering experiment	Masked boobies use asynchronous incubation. These birds lay an egg and start incubating it. Then, a few days later, lay a second one. Most of the time the bigger chick, who tends to be the bigger one, commits siblicide. But blue footed boobies don't
Example of garden experiment	Researchers took two types of snakes. One that didn't like eating slugs and another that did, and put them in the same environment. They then measured their slug consumption several generations later. The descendants of the inland slugs were still not inclined to eat slugs and the descendants of coastal snakes were still a-ok with eating slugs. For these snakes there is some genetic variation that influences slug feeding
What are garden experiments	Organisms moved from one environment to another. - After generations you measure phenotype of descendants to see if there has been changes.
Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) Analysis	A section of DNA (the locus) that correlates with variation in a phenotype (the quantitative trait)
Inbred Lines	Are individuals of a particular species which are nearly identical to each other in phenotype due to long inbreeding.
Cross-Fostering	Offspring are removed from their biological parents at birth and raised by surrogates
Phenotypic Variability	Phenotypes (size, color, shape) Variation in those traits
WHat was the Fos B + Fos B - test?	Single gene that influences behavior Fos B+ - Mother cuddles babies Fos B- - Mother abandons babies
Polymorphism (Negative frequency dependent selection)	If everyone is eating from a single food source, it is advantageous to disperse from the crowd. If everyone is leaving to eat. It is better to stick around and eat what is near you
Single-Gene Effects	Fruit flies were placed in wet yeast (which they like to eat). The distance of their foraging trails measured and plotted on a histogram. Their mobility is bimodally distrusted, with a cluster of individuals having traveled a greater distance. T variation at a single genetic locus causes variation in how much they are moving.
Epigeneisis	Study of expression of genes.
No points pop-quiz Suppose you were interested in how a gene called distal-less behavior is mosquitos. Which of the following techniques should you pursue	?
Zenk	Involved in learning For example: When a bird hears something it turns on gene expression. This, in turn, alters the neural connectivity and this is how song learning occur
Habituation at the molecular level	When you sense something again and again you habituate. For example: birds were played the same song for a long time. There was a lot of zenk gene expression at the beginning but it decreased with more exposure to the song. This suggested that zenk is involves in habituation
Hippocampal Geneexpression	For example: Chickadees are found all the way from Kansas to Alaska. They cache everywhere but the pressure to do so would be much higher in places like Alaska where it gets really cold and snowy. Indeed, chickadees in Alaska are really good at caching.
Dominance in Astatolipia	Astatolilapia undergo a big change when they transition form a subordinate to a dominant in their group. This change can be induced; when dominant fish is removed, subordinate fish start to transition.
Developmental Plasticity	The ability of a given geneotype to producex different phenotype according to the environment in which individuals develops (Think: changes during the maturation process. However, you could also think about this is short period, such as getting a suntan.)
Brainstorm Examples of adaptive and non-adaptive plasticity	Fatness- you could store fat when there is a lot of food and burn it when food is sparse
Norms of Reaction	Plasticity can vary by genotype V.G, V.E and VGXE. It's not always adaptive (can be favored and it can not be favored)
Draw, then talk bright 111.2 (enri) 117.0 (nen) DUll 119.7 (enri) 164.0 (nenvir) Draw the norm of reaction Is there evidence of... Genetic effect? -for one or both environments environmental effect? -for one or both genotyoes interaction effects?	Weak genetic effect in the enriched environment. There is a bigger genetic effect for the normal environment There is a weak environmental effect for the bright line but a bigger one for the dull line. There is an interaction effect
Plasticity in defense	example: In daphnia helmets protect against predators, chemical cues of predators stimulate helmet development. So if they are in an environment that doesn't have many predators they will have a no helmet point
Plasticity and puberty	A lot of learning seems to occur during sensitive periods. The same effects cannot be produced outside of the sensitive period.
Discrete adaptive plastisticity	Some kinds of plasticity are more continuous and some are more discrete (meaning there are very distinct morphs). When there are different forms, this is known as polyphenism
Example of Discrete plasticity	Tiger salamanders can take two forms. one form is omnnivorous and they have a smaller body size and smaller teeth. The other form is cannibalistic and they have a bigger body size and a specialize in eating others of the same species.
Breakout time What are the costs and benigits of cannibalism in salamanders? How would you predict population density and kinship affect the probaility of cannibalism	In high density populations some salamanders, the big ones become cannibals. You need a bunch of other salamanders around if they are going to be your main food source. If they are surrounded by kin, however, they are less likely to become cannibals. This ties back to Hamilton's kin selection. You reduce the preponderance of your own genes in the population if you kill your kin members
Sexual Polyphenism (dung beetle)	Body size potential determines whether dung beetles grow a horn. If you are a small larvea and there is no chance that you will be competitive, don't invest in the horn. Instead, you should spend your resources growing your body. The biggest beetles have the biggest horns.
Wing Experiment in butterfly's	Both, one, or neither of the hing wings of moths were surgically removed one or both hind wings. When the wings were removed, other areas of the body grew larger. By removing wings, which would take up resources, they are able to invest in other organs.
Developmental instability (Fluctuating asymmetry)	If a body developed symmetrically (if the right and the lest side of the body are similar) it indicates that development went very smoothly. (Humans and animals prefer symmetry)
Lack of plasticity	The ability to flucate under different conditions. The body likes to be homeostatic. Regardless of the environment we tend to develop normally.
Canalization	The ability to produce the same phenotype under a variety of conditions
Harlow Experiment	Showed that the ontogenetic niche of these monkeys involved some degree of sociality (the monkeys developed pathologically unless their rearing was supplemented with group play)
Ontogenetic niche	Conditions that are necessary to have what do you need to have a normal environment)
Genetic Adaption	Heritable and the locus of change is genetic
Individual learning	Is not heritable and its locus of change is not genetic ex: If an animal learns something from an individual experience it wont be in inherited
Cultural Transmission	It is heritable but it's locus of change is not genetic ex: The way that we learn language. It in a sense is heritable not genetically but it can still be passed down through generations
Niche Construction	Is potentially inheritable but not genetic ex: animal adapts to its environment by changing the environment around it (beavers and dams)
Habituation	Response to a stimulus declines over repeated presentations example: you smell, see, taste something and your response will begin to deminishes over time
What is habituation distinct from?	Fatique, sensory adaption example: A bunch of ducks see a fake hawk fly over them so they duck. Doing this over and over will eventually cause the ducks to stop ducking because they know they are safe
Habituation during observational studies	Animals who are observed by humans tend to not fear humans released in the wild so great lengths are taken to avoid animals recognizing humans (costumes, props)
The habituation-dis habotuation paradigm	Trying to see if an animal can percieve two stimuli as different. example: suppose I'm interested in hearing in (whatever) I'm going to habituate some loser to this sound them I am going to change the sound by five words to see if they hear the difference
Sensitization	Response to stimulus increases over repeated presentations (mosquito in the room)
Associative Learning	Learn to associate one thing with another thing (Classical conditioning and operant conditioning)
Neutral stimulus	Bell lets the dog know that it's time to eat
Unconditioned stimulus (us)	Meat powder (food) the reward when the bell rings
Unconditioned repsonse	Salivation occurs when the dog sees the meat poweder
NS becomes conditioned stimusul	After many trails the bell causes the dog to salivate whether or not there is meat powder
UCR becomes conditioned response	The conditioned response (by the bell) is salivation from the dog
Operant conditioning	Learning to associate behavior with consequences of behavior (Trial and error learning)
Puzzle boxes (throdnike)	We could teach the rat when it sees the green light but not the red light that it will get food if it pulls the lever when it's green. if it pulls the red one it will get shocked.
Reinforcement and punishment	Reinforcement - increases a behavior Punishment - decreases a behavior
Positive Punishment	"Doing/presenting something" e.g. shocking a rat, spanking a child To decrease a probability of a behavior
Positive Reinforcement	Dog sits so you give the dog a treat or say that dog is being a good dog. increases probability of behavior
Negative Punishment	Dog jumps on you when you give it attention so you take away that attention you want to decrease probability of behavior
Negative reinforcement	Dog wears a shock collar when the behavior being taught is learned the shock collar gets taken off. Increases probaility of behavior
Uses and Variations of operant conditioning	Sensory/cognitive ex: run monkeys through color blindness tests (monkeys are color blind) genetically alter them to see color and run them through the test again. song preference ex: female birds love to hear male songs so they dope birds up with estrodile and play different songs on different birches to see which song they prefer
Difference between operant and classical conditioning	Classical conditioning - stimulus and response operant conditioning - behavior is some sort of consequence to the behavior
Clicker training	Powerful way to train animals combination of OC and CC Click whenever an animal starts doing something you want it to do (usually followed with a treat)
Latent learning	Association without immediate reinforcement example: Beewolves monitor their surroundings before leaving there den so they are able to find their way back home
Insight learning	Transfering prior knowledge to perform a task example: chimpanzees stacked boxed to reach banana's out of their reach
Hebbian Theory	Repeated persistent stimulation of a post-synaptic cell increases efficiency example: cells that fire together, wire together.
Vocal learning and sleep	It turns out that zebra finch get better then worse ans so on...at learning song The more they improved with the song the more deterioration was shown in regions involved in song learning which are also active during sleep
COsts and benifits of learning	costs: time, requires resources and pronse to make mistakes benefits - behavioural flexibility within a lifetime
Garcia Effect	Associate food with nasua ex: Bats were given a food then blasted with radiation. They associated that food with nasua in the future and avoided it. However vampire bats only drink blood so when radiation was used on them it did not affect them.
Food caching	Find food, hide it and find it later for consumption
Trap-lining	Learn locations of nector sources, develop a routine, run whole circuit (necture replenishes)
Social Learning	Learned by offspring ex: rats have a chemical called carbon disulfide in their breath) The smell of the rats breath tells the other rats that it found a food source worth eating
Learning an predation	Mice learned over time to avoid certain areas in their environment to prevent being ate by predators.
Learning and reproduction	Sailfin mollies - copy others who are selected by mates for sexual imprinting rhesus monkeys learn how to become mothers over time and thus survival rate goes way up
Learning and individual recognition	Wasps recognize faces so when they are altered the wasps that once would avoid attacking each other because they are kin will attack each other.
SOcial learning	Knowledge learned can persist over generations ex: breeding big horned sheep in controlled environments then releases them into the wild without an alder will cause them to die off because they are not taught how to survive harsh winters.
Contagion (Response faciliation)	Some behaviors you already know how to do (duck flys everyone follows) which does not require an understanding and can support additional learning
Local enhancement (response facilitation)	ex: There is a social model doing something the subject does not know how to do so it attracts the subject. The subject learns through trail and error.
Emulation	ex: The subject sees the model, sees it's goal and it's outcome but learns the behavior through trail and error learning "Lets see if I can get termites because he was able to get termites with a stick"
Imitation in social learning	The model exhibited some behavior and the model replicates the behavior "I see you've taken a stick, scrapped off the leafs and stuck it in the hole then licked the termites off so i am going to do the same"
Teaching through social learning	The teacher understands that the subject doesn't know something so it makes a deliberate attempt to teach something.
Indentify teaching	1. Must modify its behavior in pretense of naive observer 2. recieves no immediate benefit or incurs a cost 3. Behavior results in student acquiring knowledge or skills more rapidly than it would have without being taught

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