Research Methods 2 Definitions

Frage	Antworten
Effect Size	Difference between two means in terms of standard deviations
Placebo Group	experience exactly the same conditions as the experimental group expect for the level of the independent variable is thought to affect the dependent variable.
Non-Parametric Test	significance test that does not make estimations of parameters of and underlying distribution.
Independent Variable	one group of participants is subject to the experimental condition while an entirely different group of people participates in the control condition. These two conditions are the levels of the independent variable that was manipulated by the experiment.
Deduction	Logical argument using rules to derive a conclusion from premises
Continious Scale	there is no limit to the sub divisions of points that are possible and meaningful, though there will be limits in practice, depending on the type of measuring instrument used
Data Set	group of data points or values which can be summarized or analyzed
Snowball Sample	a technique often employed in qualitative research where the information is required from key people in an organization or from those whose have personal or professional experience with the research issue.
Central Tendency	formal term for any measure of the typical or middle value in a group.
Pre-test	Measure of participants before an experiment in order to balance or compare groups, or to asses changes by comparison with scores after the experiment.
Hypothesis testing	research that analyses data for a predicted effect
Order effects	effects from the order in which people participate in conditions.
Dispersion	technical and general term fro any measure of the spread of scores in a sample of the population data.
Related design	a score in one condition is discretely paired with a score in the other condition
Categorical Variable	each value id a discrete and qualitatively separate categories
Measured Variable	We can use a number to indicate where along a scale a person lies on this variable
Unrelated design	the 'independent samples' or 'between groups'. Each score in one group or condition cannot in anyway relate to any specific score in the other group or condition.
Range	the distance between the top and bottom values of a set
Reification	the tendency to treat abstract concept as if it had independent existence.
Factors	another name for independent variables
Construct Validity	the extent to which our measure actually coincides with the construct
Inter-quartile range	distance between the first and third quartile in the distribution
Operational definition	definition of phenomenon in terms of the precise procedures taken to measure it.
Hypothetical construct	phenomenon or construct assumed to exist and used to explain observed effects, but as yet unconfirmed; stays as an explanation of effects while evidence supports it.
Asymmetrical order effect	an order effect that has greater strength in one particular order and where, therefore, counterbalancing would be ineffective
Semi inter quartile range	half the distance between first and third quartile in a distribution
Reliability	The extent to which findings or measures can be repeated with similar results. Consistency of measures
Baseline Comparison	Measure of what would occur if no experimental level of the independent a
Deviation value/ score	the amount by which a particular value deviates from the mean
Validity	the extent to which instruments measure what they intended to measure. Also the extent to which a research effect can be trusted as real or as not 'contaminated' or confounded.
Population	all the existing members of a group
Sample	A group selected form the population for an investigation
Simple Random Sample	every case in the target population has an equal chance of selection and so does every possible combination of cases
Systematic Random Sample	select every nth case form the population where n is an number. before selection is started every case must have an equal chance of being in the sample
Sampling Frame	the population from which we will sample from
Factorial Design	experiment in which more than one independent variable is manipulated
Mean Deviation	measure of dispersion- mean of all absolute deviations
Non-equivalent Groups	A possible confounding variable where two or more groups in a independent samples design experiment differ on a skill or characteristic relevant to the dependent variable
Standard Score	number of standard deviations a particular score us from it's sample mean.
Sampling Distribution	Theoretical distribution that would be obtained by taking the same statistic from many same size samples
Stratified Sample	A sample is selected so that specified groups will appear in numbers proportional to their size in the target population; within each sub-group cases are selected randomly.
Cluster Sampling	groups in the population selected at random from among other similar groups and assumed to be representative of a population.
Sampling Error	difference between a sample statistic and the true population statistic, usually to assumed to be random in origin
Degrees of freedom	common term in statistical analysis having to do with the number of individual data points that are free to vary given that overall summary values are known.
Standard error	the distribution has a standard deviation
Quota Sampling	Consists of obtaining people from categories, in proportion to their occurrence in the general population but the selection from each category is entirely determined by the researcher
Self selecting Sample	researcher use participants that are readily available
Variation ratio	proportion of non-modal values to all values
Central Limit Theorem	Used in theoretical estimations of standard error of sampling distribution from standard deviation of a sample.
Opportunity/Convenience Sample	a sample selected because they are easily available for testing
Confidence Intervals	limits to the likely interval within which a population mean lies based on an estimate from a sample mean and standard error
Haphazard Sample	A sample selected from the population with no conscious bias ( but not likely to be truly random)
Sample statistics	measures of a sample. they are frequently taken as an estimate of the same measures of a population
Purposive Sample	The selection choice is made by the researchers on the basis of those who are more representative for the research issue or who are likely to have expertise in the matter
Line charts	chart joining continuous data points in a single line
Skewed Distribution	non-normal distributions that have a lot more scores on one side of the mode than the other
Natural Experiments.	events beyond the researcher's direct control but where an Iv and DV can be identified.
Participant Variable	Variations between persons acting as participants & which are relevant to the study
time-series	line chart showing measures of variable at progressive time intervals.
Sampling Bias	The weighting of a sample with an over-representation of one particular category of people
Ceiling Effect	occurs where a measure produces most values near the top end of a scale
Floor Effect	phenomenon where measures produce very many low scores
Group difference studies	a post facto study that compares the measurements of an existing variable in two contrasting conditions.
Kurtosis	the overall shape of a distribution in terms of height and width compared with normal distribution
Frequency Polygon	histogram showing only the peaks of class intervals
Platykurtic	non-normal distribution that is widely spaced out and low in the centre
Leptokurtic	Non-normal distribution that is closely bunched in the center and tall
Significance test	test performed in order to decide whether the null hypothesis should be retained or rejcted
Explanatory data analysis	close examination of data by a variety of means before submitting them to significance testing
Null Hypothesis	Assumption of no effect in the population from which the samples are drawn
Alternative Hypothesis	assumption that an effect exists
Mundane realism	feature of design where experiment resembles everyday but is not necessarily engaging
Participant Variable	person variables differing in proportion across different experimental groups and possibly confounding results
standardized procedure	Testing or measuring behavior with exactly the same formalized routine for all participants
Experimenter realism	effect of attention-grabbing interesting experiment in compensating for artificiality or demand characteristics
Cumulative frequency	distribution that shows the number of cases that have occurred up to and including the current category
Significance Level	levels of probability at which it is agreed to reject the null hypothesis. if the probability if obtained results under the null hypothesis is less than the set level then the null hypothesis is rejected
Error Variance	Variance among scores caused by the operation of randomly acting variables.
Box plots	based on ordinal measurements of the set of data. The give us a graphical representation of the inter-quartile range
Experimental Validity	The truth of conclucions drawn about an experiment.
Deception	Leading participants to believe tat something other than the true independent variable is involved or withholding information such that the reality of the investigative situation is masked or distorted
Raw data	the unprocessed data gathered directly from participants before they are organized or treated statistically.
Frequency Distribution	distribution showing how often certain values occurred in categories
Debriefing	informing participants about the full nature and rationale of the study they've experienced and attempting to reverse any negative influences
Threats to Validity	any influence on research variables that might provide an alternative explanation of our effect or that might limit generality of what we appear to have found.
Stress and Discomfort	psychological investigators should guarantee the safety of their participants and that everything possible should be done to protect them from harm of discomfort
Percentile	point of on a measured scale that marks off a certain percentage of cases in a data set
Decile	Point on a measured scale that marks off each 10% of the data set of the population
The Right to Withdraw	in all research that involved individual participation the investigator is obliged to - 1. give participants at to likely levels of discomfort, 2. remind them of their right to withdraw & 3. terminate the experiment if discomfort levels are higher than anticipated
Normal Distribution	continuous distribution, bell shaped, symmetrical about its mid-point.
Categorical weekend	variable where cases are merely placed into independent, separate categories
Informed Consent	agreement to participate in research in the full knowledge of the research context and participant rights
Construct Validity	whether our measures of a construct are really measuring it, and also the extent to which the construct itself is supported by psychological evidence
Measured Variable	variable were cases measured on it are placed on some sort of scale that has a direction
Participant expectancy	the expectation on the part of the participants that their behavior should alter in an experimental situation
Demand Characteristics	cues in a study which help participants work out what is expected
Social desirability	the tendency of research participants to want to look good and provide socially acceptable answers.
Anonymity	keeping participants or clients identity away from publication or any inadvertent disclosure
Evaluation apprehension	participants concern about being tested, which may affect results.
Reactive	studies in which the participant is expected to react to being studied
Confidentiality	keeping data from participants or clients away from publication
Single Blind	participants do not know what condition they are in
Nominal Level	level of measurement at which numbers are the only labels for the categories
Double blind	an experimental procedure whether neither the participants or the experimenter knows what condition the participant is in
Expectancy control design	half of the participants receive the experimental treatment and half do not as in the standard between groups design.
Intervention	research that makes alteration to peoples lives beyond the specific research setting in some cases because there is an intention to ameliorate specific human conditions
Independent Variable	The thing that is manipulated
Dependent Variables	The resulting behaviour that is measured
True Experiment	Participants are randomly assigned to conditions
Quasi-experiments	Participants are already on groups
Between Participants	divide the set of participants into two group. Each group has a different condtion
Within Participants	Each participant does the task twice. Once in each condition
Population Validity	the extent which an effect can be generalized from the sample to the sample population from which they were selected and to other populations
Frequencies	number of cases in specific categories. These numbers are being used to count, they do stand for quantities.
One-tailed Hypothesis	X will be bigger/smaller than Y
Critical Value	value that the results of our test statistic must reach in order for the null hypothesis to be rejected.
Two- tailed Hypothesis	X will be different to Y
Type II Error	The probability of retaining the null hypothesis when it is false
ordinal level	level of measurement at which cases are arranged in rank position
Ecological Validity	the extent to which findings generalize to other settings
Internal validity	when we can conclude that the independent variable brought about the observed changes in the dependent variable
Effect Size	the size of the effect being investigated as it exist in the population
Interval level	level of measurement at which units on a scale represents an equal change in the variable measured
External Validity	The degree to which we can generalise our results to other participants, other conditions, other times and other places
Confounding Variables	A variable that systematically changes with the independent variable and dependent variable
Power	The probability of not making a type II error if a real effect size occurs. The probability of selecting a case or sample above the level of Beta in the population defined by the alternative hypothesis id 1 - Beta
Meta-analysis	Statistical analysis of results results of multiple equivalent studies of the same or very similar hypotheses in order to assess more thoroughly an effects validity
One tailed Test	test referring to only one tail of the distribution under the null hypothesis. May be used i alternative hypothesis is directional
Hawthorne effect	effect on human performance caused solely by the knowledge that one is being observed
Two Tailed hypothesis	test referring to both tails of the probability distribution. Must be used if the alternative hypothesis is non-directional
Critical Case	A special case may sometimes highlight things that can be related back to most non-special cases
Lab Experiment	conducted in a highly controlled artificial environment. There is a problem of low external validity
Parametric test	Relatively powerful significance test that makes estimations of population parameters. The data tested must usually therefore satisfy certain assumptions.
Field experiment	conducted in naturally occurring environment for participants
Focus Groups & Panels	Researchers may bring together a panel of either experts, those with a particular interest in a topic or in the case of focus groups, simply a selection of people who are fairly representative of the general population.
Distribution Dependent Test	significance test making estimations of population parameters.
Placebo	Inert innocuous version of treatment resulting in psychosomatic placebo effect.
Quasi-interval scales	scale that appears to be interval but where equal intervals do not necessarily measure equal amounts of the construct.
Sampling Bias	Systematic tendency towards over- or under- representation of some categories in a sample
Difference Mean	mean of differences between pairs of scores.
Ratio	interval type scale where proportions on the scale are meaningful because there is an absolute zero point
Pooled Variance	combining of two sample variances is to average in order to estimate population variance
Positivism	Methodological belief that the world's phenomena are reducible to observable facts and the mathematical relationships between them.
Control Groups	groups used as a baseline measure against which the performance of the experimental group is assessed
Discrete Scale	each point is entirely separate from the next

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