Relationships

Frage	Antworten
What do evolutionary psychologists believe about relationships?	Evolutionary psychology believe that all human behaviour is driven by: • Instinct • The need to survive and to reproduce so our genes are passed on to the next generation. • This is called genetic survival.
How do females ensure that they pass on their genetic code before they die?	• Selecting a mate with status and wealth. • Male may be older and therefore ready to commit. • This ensures that her offspring will have food and two protective parents.
What characteristics do females seek in male partners that would make them "good fathers"?	• Financial stability. • Success. • Personality traits that are caring.
Why do women look for these characteristics in their partners?	Females only produce a few eggs in their lifetime and can only have a limited number of children.
Fill the blanks: Females are _________ over who they mate with and have _____ partners.	Females are selective over who they mate with and have fewer partners.
What is a male's best chance of genetic reproduction and why?	To impregnate as many females as possible as they can have an unlimited number of children (due to producing millions of sperm). A male can never be sure a child is theirs so they need to ensure that they reproduce with lots of women.
What characteristics do males look for in female partners?	• To be in a narrow, fertile age range. • Show physical signs of being fertile. This includes: • Body symmetry. • Hip to waist ratio. • Facial symmetry.
Fill the blanks: Women with a ______ hip to waist ratio and ____ facial symmetry are associated with _______ reproductive success.	Women with a larger hip to waist ratio and more facial symmetry are associated with greater reproductive success.
Suggest 3 supporting evaluations of evolutionary theory.	• Clark and Hartfield (1989 and 1990) - sample of male and female students on a campus. • Toma - personal advertisements. • Dunbar and Waynforth - American newspaper personal advertisements.
Elaborate on the method of the research completed by researchers from the first evaluation.	• The sample was completed on male and female students. • Approached total strangers of opposite sex. • Propositioned with one of three requests: to go out that night, to go back to their house with them or to have sex with them.
What were the results of this study?	• 50% both men and women agreed to go out that night. • None of the women propositioned by men agreed to sex with a stranger. • 69% men agreed to go back to the person's house. • 75% of men agreed to sex.
Why is this evidence of supporting the evolutionary theory?	It shows that men and women differ in their sexual behaviour: • Men seek multiple partners to pass their genes to the next generation.
Which study provides further support for evolutionary theory and involves personal advertisements?	Toma: • Analysed personal advertisements and found that: • Men thought it more acceptable to lie about their education and income. • Women thought it more acceptable to lie about their weight.
Evaluate the above study.	This research ties in with evolutionary theory and the idea that men are more concerned with physical signs of fertility and women with the status and financial ability to invest in children.
There was further research into personal advertisements. Who conducted this study and what did they find.	Dunbar and Waynforth analysed nearly 900 ads in four US newspapers. There were consistent differences, in line with sociobiological explanations, in how men and women tried to 'sell' themselves.
What did the numerical data found in this study show?	• 42% males sought youthful mate (as opposed to only 25% of females) • 44% males sought physically attractive partner (compared to only 22% women) • 50% women used terms like 'pretty', 'curvaceous' and 'gorgeous' (only 34% males used comparable terms)
What do these results show?	Ties in with the idea that males are primarily attracted to women's physical characteristics and females are more attracted to earning capacity and status. Each sex advertises what, according to evolutionary theory, the other sex seeks.
What are the 3 criticisms of evolutionary theory?	• Supports gender stereotypes perpetuates 'double-standard' i.e. that men can be promiscuous but women can't. Socially sensitive research. • Can't explain homosexual relationships - not selected for reproductive capability. More than just about genetic reproduction. • Deterministic - behaviour not driven by free will.
What are the four factors that affect attraction?	• Self disclosure. • Physical attractiveness. • Matching hypothesis. • Filter theory.
What is self disclosure?	This is a theory which suggests that: • The more personal information we reveal about ourselves, the more that someone will like us. • People tend to like others who reveal information about themselves. • Indicates on both sides that there is trust and this information won't be revealed to anyone else.
Suggest a strength of self disclosure.	• Kito looked into self disclosure of both American and Japanese students. • In both groups, self disclosure was much higher in romantic relationships than other types including same-sex and cross-sex friendships. • Suggests that it is an important factor in romantic relationships.
Suggest a weakness of self disclosure.	• Altman and Taylor found that disclosing personal information in the initial stages of a relationship was inappropriate and did not enhance attraction. • Suggests that the disclosing person was maladjusted as they broke social norms and seem less likeable. • Shows that the issue of self disclosure is complex and we can't assume that more disclosure leads to attraction.
Define the factor of physical attractiveness.	• More physically attractive individuals are seen as having more favourable personality traits (i.e. trustworthy, optimistic and sociable). • Known as the halo effect and applies equally to men and women. • Most agree on what is considered attractive although it can vary slightly through culture.
Fill the blanks: Evolutionary theory stresses the _________ of physical attractiveness in _______ as it is all associated with greater __________ _______.	Evolutionary theory stresses the importance of physical attractiveness in females as it is all associated with greater reproductive success.
What is a strength - found by Cartwright- of the theory of physical attractiveness?	• Cartwright found that women with more symmetrical breasts were more fertile than those with asymmetrical. • This supports the idea of body symmetry increasing reproductive fitness and is an important part of attraction from a male perspective.
Describe another supporting evaluation of physical attractiveness.	• Penton-Voak found that females prefer males with greater facial symmetry, an indication of genetic stability that could be passed on to any offspring. • This shows the importance of physical attractiveness in attraction for females.
Define matching hypothesis.	• Walster et al proposed the matching hypothesis. • This predicts that when initiating romantic relationships, individuals will seek a partner of a similar level of attractiveness. • It is said that people are able to accurately assess their own and other people's levels of attractiveness.
Fill the blanks: Walster suggested that choosing someone of the ____ attractiveness rating reduces the likelihood of _________ and also makes us more ______ in our relationships as we may feel that a more attractive partner will be tempted to find someone else.	Walster suggested that choosing someone of the same attractiveness rating reduces the likelihood of rejection and also makes us more secure in our relationships as we may feel that a more attractive partner will be tempted to find someone else.
Give a positive evaluation of the matching hypothesis involving Murstein's study.	• Murstein asked participants to assess photographs and rate the physical attractiveness of genuine couples or non-genuine couples (put together for the purpose of the study). • It was found that the genuine couples were more likely to receive similar level of attractiveness supporting matching hypothesis.
Give a second positive evaluation of matching hypothesis, involving the research of Walster and Walster.	• Told participants that they had been selected a partner for upcoming dance when in fact they had been selected at random. • Results showed that couples of a similar level of attractiveness expressed greater liking for their partner than those who were dissimilar.
What is a weakness of factors affecting attractiveness?	• Reductionist. • Too simplistic to say that these factors alone will result in attraction. • May be a combination of some or all that influence attraction.
Who devised the idea of filter theory and what is the basic theory?	• Kerckhoff and Davies. • Believed choice of partners is affected by factors limiting people an individual is able to choose from. • There is a series of three filters that make it unlikely that we will meet, connect and form relationships with many people.
Define filter 1 of filter theory.	• How similar people are demographically. • Less likely to work, socialise and associate with people who are dissimilar to us in the following: • Age. • Race. • Religion. • Class. • Education.
Define filter 2 of filter theory.	• Similarity in attitudes. • Have to meet an individual long enough to learn each other's values and attitudes. • Only those who share beliefs will be seen as attractive and compatible.
Define filter 3 of the filter theory.	• Complimentary. • The extent to which others meet their partner's needs: • Social. • Physical. • Most importantly for a long-term relationship, emotional.
What is the positive evaluation for filter 1 (Demographic)?	• Taylor et al found that 85% Americans married in 1998 married someone from their own ethnic group. • This supports the theory that social demographics filter who we are likely to meet and become romantically involved with.
What is the positive evaluation for filter 2 (Attitudes)?	• Byrne found that strangers with similar attitudes to participants were more liked than those with different attitudes. • Demonstrates that similarity of attitudes acts as a filter regarding who we like and are attracted to.
What is a positive evaluation for filter 3 of filter theory (Complimentary)?	• Sadalla found that women are attracted to males who are confident, reliable, socially dominant and have high positions in society. • Supports the idea that individuals are attracted to people who are able to meet their economic needs and provide resources.
What is social exchange theory?	• This theory suggests that relationships are often viewed like businesses. • Relationships are considered whether they will be 'profitable' or not before embarked upon. • There are both benefits and costs to relationships.
Fill the blanks: ____ suggests that we consider carefully how much we will ______ from a potential relationship and what the relationship will ____ us in terms of ____ and ______.	Blau suggests that we consider carefully how much we will profit from a potential relationship and what the relationship will cost us in terms of time and energy.
What did Thaibaut and Kelly first suggest?	Whilst in a relationship a cost benefit analysis is continually performed and make comparisons between other relationships.
What is the comparison level?	• Comparisons are made between a current relationship and those of the past or other relationships on offer. • If past relationships were more profitable or a potential relationship is a better option, it will be unlikely to maintain the present one.
What did Thaibaut and Kelly also suggest?	• If past or possible relationships are more profitable, a current relationship will be ended. • This is known as the comparison level for alternative relationships.
What are the two positive evaluations for social exchange theory?	• Rusbultz and Martz researched into women who had experienced domestic violence. • Mills and Clarke researched exchange couple and the mental records that they keep.
Expand on the first positive evaluation from the flashcard above.	• Rusbultz and Martz conducted study on female victims of domestic violence, living in secure accommodation. • If women had no better alternative, they were likely return to their abusive partners. • Shows that we consider costs and profits and will stay in a relationship outweighed by profit, even if cost is abuse.
Expand on the second positive evaluation from the flashcard above.	• Mills and Clarke found many couples can be described as exchange couples. • Couples keep mental records of who is ahead and who is behind in what they have done for their partner. • Unhappy if behind. • Shows economic principles are applied to relationships and are viewed as an exchange.
List the 3 criticisms of social exchange theory.	• Doesn't explain why some leave relationships without an alternative nor how great disparity has to be for a relationship to be unsatisfactory. It is too simplistic a theory/environmentally reductionist. • It suggests that people are only motivated to maintain relationships only out of hedonistic/selfish concerns. • Only applies to western individualistic cultures. In many collectivist cultures, relationships are not formed but arranged and begin on the day of the wedding. Beta bias where differences among cultures are under-estimated and generalisations are made.
What is equity theory?	• Concerned about equity or fairness in a relationship. • Relationships are maintained if there is balance and stability. • Couples work hard to make relationships fair and ensure both involved are satisfied. Couples tend to recognise if a relationship is unjust and make effort to redress the imbalance.
Walster suggested that equity is based on four principles...	• Profit - Rewards are maximised and costs minimised for both partners. • Distribution - Trade offs and negotiations take place to ensure both parties are happy. • Dissatisfaction - The greater the feeling of unfairness, the more dissatisfied a person will be. • Realignment - If it is possible to restore equity and make things fair, the relationship will continue.
List two positive evaluations for equity theory.	• Canary and Stafford devised the RMSM. • Dainton found those who perceived their relationship inequitable

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