Neuropsyc Review

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What is dyslexia?	Dyslexia is a learning disorder in which an individual who has normal general intelligence and they have the intelligence to read but they are scoring well below their age level. They have issues with word retrieval and the identification of words. Reading is slow in these individuals and it affects both spoken and written language
What is Surface dyslexia?	Surface dyslexia is where you have difficulty with whole word reading, but you're able to sound out your words if you don't know it
What is Deep Dyslexia?	Deep dyslexia is when you have intact whole word reading. So when you recognize the word, you're able to identify it but you are not able to sound out the word
Describe the neuropsychological pathogenesis of Dyslexia.	The best hypothesis in regards to what dyslexia regards to the focus of the left hemisphere and the plenum temporal has been implicated. It is more disorganized it seems to be smaller. So, for whatever reason portions of the left hemisphere in dyslexic individuals tend to be underdeveloped
What are the characteristics of a nonverbal learning disorder (NVLD)?	In NVLD these kids have poor skills in visual perception, tactile perceptual, psychomotor, nonverbal and novel problem-solving skills. So, these children's show deficits in spatial organization, they might miss read or omit mathematics symbols. They might and have poorly formed or space numbers and often they don't remember number facts. They might have deficits in arithmetic’s, and difficulties in arithmetic judgment and reasoning.
Describe the neuropsychological pathogenesis of NVLD.	This affects the right hemisphere which has damage or dysfunction. One of the hypothesis is that it can be caused by damage to the white fibers that access the right hemisphere
What is the developmental course of a child with NVLD?	As an infant a child with a NVLD has issues with exploratory behavior and their motor skills lag behind their language development. In elementary years’ children are prone to act out and they tend to be impulsive. They tend to exhibit hyperactivity and they have behavioral problems. In adolescence their peers might tend to avoid them, they also become socially withdrawn and isolated. So you have to watch out for depression and anxiety in them.
What are interventions that can help a child with a NVLD?	You want to have interventions that can help the child essentially understand and learn generalized cognitive and social problem-solving strategies. You want them to develop appropriate communication skills and engage and interact appropriately with others. Also, you want them to explore and interact with their environment. You want them to gain a realistic view of their strengths and their weaknesses.
What are the positive symptoms of schizophrenia?	Positive symptoms inclued; hallucinations, delusions. These are symptoms that normal individuals do not have
What are the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?	Negative symptoms inclued; blunted affect, they feel emotions but they cannot show emotions, or they may not talk at all. These are symptoms that normal individuals show
Does schizophrenia have a genetic component?	yes, several genes are thought to be involved. In schizophrenia, the disc1 Gene has been of interest for schizophrenia patients. Also if you have an identical twin with the disorder you have a 50% chance of also having the disorder. Recent studies suggest findings that there might be 8 distinct gene components for this disorder.
What is the pharmacology of schizophrenia?	Recent drugs have been found to impact and treat the positive symptoms and they found that they blocked the dopamine 2 and 3 receptors. There's studies showing that glutamate might be involved. Amphetamine in some cases cause of greater release of dopamine in some patients with schizophrenia verses patients without schizophrenia
What brain abnormalities are seen in schizophrenia?	Amphetamine in some cases cause of greater release of dopamine in some patients with schizophrenia verses patients without schizophrenia. There is evidence of abnormalities of dopamine transmissions in the prefrontal cortex as well they have larger ventricles. The anterior hippocampus is seen to be smaller in a schizophrenic twin. The total volume of the gray matter in the left temporal lobe is reduced. The brain abnormalities seem to be related to the negative symptoms, whereas the dopamine abnormalities seem to be related to the positive symptoms.
What is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia?	The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia is a theory that argues that the unusual behavior and experiences associated with schizophrenia can be fully or largely explained due to changes of dopamine functions in the brain
In what ways is schizophrenia a neurological disorder?	There is evidence of abnormalities of dopamine transmissions in the prefrontal cortex as well they have larger ventricles. The anterior hippocampus is smaller in a schizophrenic twin. And the total volume of the gray matter in the left temporal lobe is reduced. There is evidence of deterioration that starts in the parietal lobes and then spreads to the temporal lobe, the sensomatory, the motor cortex, and prefrontal cortex. The area of deterioration is correlated with actual symptoms, so when it gets too like the temporal lobe they start having auditory hallucinations.
What is the evidence for abnormal brain development in schizophrenia?	There is evidence that the hippocampus normal cells are disorganized. The mom might have had a type of flu that might have interacted with the child’s brain development. Also there might have been a birth complication like the umbilical cord being wrapped around the neck or being breached.
Describe the neuropathology and neurochemistry of depression.	The frontal cortex might actually play a critical role in depression. There's also a lot of low levels of serotonin and norepinephrine. There is a decrease in activity to the brain and it is consistently seen after successful antidepressant treatments. There are also significant sleep disturbances in those patient with depression, so they don't seem to get enough stage 3 and 4 and they enter REM sleep earlier
Describe the neuropsychology of obsessive-compulsive disorder.	OCD is when a patient has obsessions like disgust with bodily secretions, dirt or germs. Then they have compulsions on their obsessions, like the might excessively count something, excessively check something, excessively clean. OCD is partly caused by heredity With this there seem to be abnormalities in the brain, in the basal ganglia and prefrontal area there is a circuit that seems to be effected. SSRI’s might help and also behavioral therapy might help
What are the biological treatments for major affective disorders?	SSRI’s selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Tricyclic antidepressants. Last resort they might be given electric compulsive therapy. This is where they're sometimes giving a drug that paralyzes them and it paralyzes the muscles so that when you're inducing a seizure and then they're not going to be composing. Effects of ECT are quite rapid. Just a few seizures that are induced by the ECT can snap a person out of a deep depression within a few days. ECT tends to decrease the brain activity but this raises the seizure threshold of the brain and it seems to increase the release of Gaba.
What are the biological treatments for major affective disorders? (Cont.)	Bipolar is treated by lithium and it might be treated by some anti-compulsive drugs as well. Between 70 and 80 percent of patients show a good response to Lithium although there's a lot of side effects. Also not all patients can tolerate those side effects like the gastrointestinal issues, hand tremors, weight gain, excessive urine production, thirst. Toxic levels give you nausea, motor incoordination, confusion, and you can even go into a coma.
What are the different treatments for anxiety disorders?	Benzodiazepines are often used for the emergency medical treatment for anxiety disorders. They do tend to have a rapid onset and they work rather quickly. They exert their effects by binding to the Gaba A receptor. Also even though anxiety disorders are very different than OCD for instance, SSRI’s might also be given.
What are the different treatments for anxiety disorders? (cont.)	The other thing with anxiety disorders is that behavioral treatments are really important. So cognitive behavioral therapy is used to desensitize those patients to the objects or situations they fear. Like social anxiety disorder, you want them to be exposed to being around other people and to being able to deal with their maladaptive thoughts. The best type of exposure therapy is Systematic desensitization. This is where you're slowly exposing them to what their afraid of and replacing those feelings of anxiety with feelings of relaxation
What are generalized seizures	In generalized seizures, you have epileptic activity in both halves of your brain. You usually lose consciousness during these types of seizure, but sometimes it can be so brief that no one notices. The muscles in your body may stiffen and/or jerk.
What are Partial seizures?	Partial seizure are seizures which affect initially only one hemisphere of the brain, they start at focus and remain localized. There are simple and complex partial seizures. In simple you often change consciousness but do not loose consciousness. In complex it is so severe you often loose consciousness.
What is Aura?	Aura is a sensation that precedes a seizure depending on the location of the seizures focus. If the seizure is in like the sensory area you might have feelings like fear or dread. This activity can be the sign that a seizure is about to start.
What is Status Epilepticus?	Status Epilepticus is a condition in which a patient undergoes a series of seizures and does not regain consciousness between them. This can cause damage to the hippocampus due to a release of glutamate.

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