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| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Defining Religion | Definined in 3 broad ideas 1. A set of beliefs: including the notion of god or a supernatural force existing beyond human experience. Variations of these beliefs include monotheistic (single god,) polytheistic (many gods,) and non-theistic (no worship of gods, e.g. Native American Sioux). 2. A set of practices: Such as collective worship and prayer, which can be expanded into ceremonies and religious festivals. Practices vary, some involving personal communication with God (Christianity), communal worship (Islam), Exorcism (Eastern Orthodox Churches), and baptism for the dead (Mormons.) 3. Some form of organisation that allows collective expression of practices, including sacred places reserved for expression of beliefs e.g. Churches, mosques, meeting halls. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Diversity | Notable characteristic of religion is its diversity. Rather than being a homogenous entity, it's expressed across 3 dimensions Historical (same society over time) Contemporeaneous (same society at the same time) Cross-cultural (between different societies) McGuire (2002): Problems of definition arise because religion is a "dual character." Both individual and social Individually: different religions have different ways of teaching being religious, and socially religions form societial functions. Any definition must avoid focusing too much on one aspect of religious behaviour in isolation from others. Religion needs to be defined and understood by how its parts relate to one another, giving rise to two approaches – inclusive and exclusive. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Inclusive | • Sees religion in broadest of terms. Functional approach focuses on what religion does for a person, rather than what it is. Durkheim (1912): religion fulfils two functions – social solidarity (creating a feeling of belonging by shared values), and social integration (specific ways in which social solidarity is created.) • Focus on function means content of religious beliefs is unimportant. For example, no difference between worshipping in a cathedral, a mosque, or at a personal shrine. What’s important is the fact that people act in specific, collective ways, and hold certain types of belief that influence their behaviour. Cline (2005): “If your belief system plays some particular role either in your social life, society, or psychological life, then it is a religion, otherwise it’s something else.” • key to understanding religion is to see it as a belief system or ideology based on faith: the uncritical and unconditional acceptance of ideas. Focus on what's defined as "religious" |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Inclusive - Criticisms | include the approach seeing religion “everywhere and nowhere.” We can see religious-type behaviour in everything, and yet we can’t define exactly which aspects of said behaviour are uniquely religious. No way of knowing if societies are growing less religious (secularisation) or more religious (resacrilisation). |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Exclusive | Consider in terms of what’s conventionally seen as religious: belief in god or supernatural, behaviour such as prayer and collective worship. Excludes quasi-religions as the beliefs they have aren't defining anything different have substantive definition of religion focused on content or substance: the beliefs, practices, organisations that’re distinctively religious and mark religious behaviour as substantively different from other similar behaviours • Beckford (1980): Characterises exclusive approaches as “restricting the term religion to phenomena displaying properties which don’t occur in other phenomena.” Luckmann (1967): Religion is a unique belief system because it: explains individual’s place in world, provides sense of moral order, explains “why we’re here,” and after death. Define religion as behaviour that’s both special and different. Substantive definitions make it possible to measure levels of religious behaviour in a society – to test whether society is becoming more or less. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Exclusive - Criticisms | Critics question where religion does have unique and exclusive features. Claim that exclusive approaches simply adopt a definition that fits neatly with conventional, mainstream world religions like Christianity. From this view, religion's defined as whatever these institutions say it is, creating 2 problems. 1. Such organisations have vested interest in ensuring their product is unique and has limited competition. 2. To identify unique characteristics of religion, definition is so narrow that it excludes behaviours not conventionally seen as religious. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Functionalism (Inclusive) | Focus on understanding how religion functions to create and maintain the cultural values that provide moral basis for social order. Durkheim (1912); “Can be no society which doesn’t feel the need of upholding and reaffirming the collective sentiments and ideas which make its unity and personality.” Social integration is an important function of religion. Development of “moral togetherness” is based on practical religious mechanisms such as collective ceremonies. • Practice progressively gives way to other forms of “religious-type” practices that serve a similar unifying function. For Durkheim, the key to understanding religion isn’t its ideological content but its ideological effect: “By worshiping God people are worshiping the power of the collective over all, they are worshiping society.” |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Functionalism (Inclusive) Alperts (1939): Religion's Four Functions | • 1. Discipline (sense of shared beliefs and values by following a set of moral rules.) • 2. Cohesion (religious ceremonies bringing people together to share values, reinforcing social solidarity. Haviland et al (2005): further this by exploring the social significance of different religious rituals playing role in “marking life transitions.” • 3. Vitalisation: Shared religious beliefs and experiences giving life to shared values in ways that allow people to use the ideas, binding them together as sources of identity • 4. Euphony (harmony): Times of crisis require individual or collective efforts to re-establish harmony. Religion’s euphonic function is expressed through tension management Thompson 1986 – religion offers explanation of events for which other frameworks couldn’t account. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Neo-Functionalism - Problem with Functionalism | Problem: majority of population aren’t especially “religious.” This doesn’t invalidate functionalist arguments about the function of religion; suggests a need to re-evaluate the specific functions of religion. Involves seeing how religion functions in postmodern society.Involves a shift away from explaining religion as functional to whole societies and towards defining its functions for some individuals and groups. In consequence, social significance of organised religion has declined. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Neo-Functionalism | Places greater emphasis on idea of dysfunctions – religion isn’t automatically functional, and in diverse societies it can create conflict. Bruce (1990): “Social scientists have been long aware of the role of religion as social cement; shared rituals and beliefs that bind people. What isn’t often noted is the idea religion often divides groups.” • Religion can be a mechanism for social change: Membership if a religious organisation may provide oppressed groups with solidarity and sense of purpose to challenge unjust laws e.g. civil rights movement. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Neo-Functionalism - Criticisms | Methodologically, questions of how to operationalise the concept of function. E.g. how do we know whether something like religion is functional and if it is, whether these functions outweigh any dysfunctions? Functionalism focuses on what religion does for societies, so any form of collective behaviour can be considered a religion with the required functions. Idea theoretically convenient because it explains parent contradictions or mutually exclusive observations through concept of functional alternatives. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Marxism (exclusive) | Based on ideas of conflict Role of religion seen as promoting a consensus beneficial to ruling class. Focusing on features that make it ultimately different from other forms of belief. Religion shapes how we see the world, role is to represent that world in ways reflecting the existing social order. • Marx (1844): Religion was an oppressive social force that operated in hugely unequal capitalist societies. Role of religion was to make vast majority of impoverished population accept their situation. Here, it can be theorised as a source of social control. Ideological force for everyone to accept their lives, but also to stifle conflict, and those who question the world Efficient form of social control because if people believed in god this helped uphold the status quo, legitimise economic exploitation, justify poverty. Marx called religion the “opiate of the masses.” “Dulled the pain of oppression.” Form of false consciousness. By embracing illusory religious ideas, people fail to understand real causes of their oppression – capitalism and its exploitation. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Marxism (exclusive) Criticisms | Turner (1983): if we measure conviction in terms of attendance and appearances, then the working classes have never been especially religious. Contemporary societies seem less religious, minor public role reserved for marriages deaths. If religion functions to support status quo, it can be hard to explain its pivotal role in secular conflicts like the Iranian Revolution. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Neo-Marxism (exclusive) | • Embraces concept of hegemony to explain role in contemporary society. Because of social changes, modern societies are more culturally diverse. • Gramsci (1934): idea that beliefs about world benefit ruling class but aren’t imposed by the religious organisations. Maintain dominant position through “consent” of the proletariats. All cultural institutions transmit their messages supporting the status quo, are ISA’s (Althusser ’71). • Hegemony makes it possible for religious ideas to be seen as influential without having to show the majority of people either believing or supporting them. Strinati (1995): lower classes “accept ideas and leadership of dominant group not because they’re induced to do so, nor because of ideological indoctrination.” They accept odes because they’re powerless to change. Religion provides set of moral guidelines for ruling-class behaviour in relation to things like marriage and inheritance, enabling it to reproduce itself and its domination of society. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Weberian Approaches | • Focus less on what religion does (functions and purpose) and instead on what it means for individuals and society. • Weber wanted to understand why capitalism envelops in some societies and not in others, even though they’d reached similar economic and technological points. Argued form of Calvinism provided the spirit of capitalism • Calvinists believed God would know before individuals were born if they were to achieve salvation. Because God wouldn’t allow sinners into heaven, the way to prove you were destined for heaven would be to “associate morality and Godliness with hard work.” – Bental (2004). Those destined for salvation had to be hard-working, moral, modest, successful. • Weber argued these were kinds of attributes required to develop capitalism, an economic system built on creation of profits to ensure success. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Weberian Approaches: Criticisms | Relationship between religion and social change is an example of how meaning influences social action – a belief in predestination developed specific behavioural norms. argument that Calvinism and Protestant ethic was “cause of capitalism has been questioned. – Tawney (1926): capitalism came into being through technological development s that revolutionised production. Fafani (2003): Capitalism developed in areas of Europe where Calvinism wasn’t a religious force. • These ideas suggest general principle: while structural theory suggests religion is conservative social force, action theories argue that religion can be a force for change. Such as Liberation theology in the Catholic Church, and the Arab Spring. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Interactionism (non-Weberian) | • Theories focus on way in which collective religious beliefs provide framework for understanding the world. • Religious and magical beliefs in pre-modernity imposed sense of meaning and order in a world threatened by disaster and disease, which was yet to be explained by science. Ability to “explain the inexplicable” meant religion encouraged certainty, nothing religion couldn’t explain. • This idea connected to religious fundamentalism as well as explanations for role and persistence of religion in contemporary societies through cultural mapping. Religion guides understanding by explaining experiences, interpreting significance, creating common cultural meanings. • Whether people are “personally religious” or not unimportant, because how they look and understand the world is shaped by religious beliefs and practices that can have strong or weak influence. Inclusive: explore how ideologies provide organisation structure to peoples lives. Specific content of religious beliefs unimportant. What matters is the ideas are believed as they plausible or are discarded when not. |
| Sociological Perspectives on Religion Criticisms of Weberian Sociology | • Criticism of Weberian sociology: overplays significance of actions, and underplays importance of social structures in explaining religious behaviour. Wuthnow (1992): ignores questions of how and why social conditions influence our beliefs: “When research finds religious friendships reinforce convictions, question still remains why some people choose religious friends and others don’t.” Suggests religious beliefs and behaviours persist because they serve important and significant functions for individuals and societies. • General problem of the inclusive approach: anything can be considered “religious” if it seems to perform a particular role in support a belief system. E.g. new age religions – little or nothing in common with conventional religions like Islam or Hinduism part from heir classification as “religions.” Difficult to evaluate religious beliefs in contemporary societies when they’re vaguely defined. |
| Different religious Movements and their Power within Society Church-type Organisations | One of most powerful forms of religious organisation. Influence varies historically (church formerly ideologically, economically, politcally powerful0 and Cross-culturally. Distinguishing feature in exerting power. Bruce (1995): premodernity, Christianity & Islam cnsiderable political power but this has declined in modernity. Late modernity: gradual separation between church and state. Distancing of state religion from politics allowed churches to rediscover the tool of religion. Formal, bureaucratic structures, power flows downwards. Hierarchies of power, involving paid officials organised by status. Structure means churchs are exclusive in terms of ministry, only certain people allowed to tend to religious needs. Show tolerance towards similar churches. Still oppose sects & cults. Staples (1998): CofE characterisedby "substanial levels of pluriformity" made of of different groups. Usually allow anyone to join, including converts. unlike sects and cults, churches don't actively try converting people to their beliefs. |
| Different religious Movements and their Power within Society Social Capital | Contepoary churches able and willing to use their two dimensions of social capital (Putnam 2000): 1. Bridging Capital: inclusiveness and notions of co-operation. More likely tha sects and cults to use this type of capital. Zmerli (2003): this makes contemporary churches: - outward-looking (concerned with matters beyond religion.) - heterogeneous in toleration - ecumenical: varying levels of cross-church co-operation. 2. Bonding capital: More exclusive. Bonds groups together but still sets organisations apart from others. |
| Different religious Movements and their Power within Society Ideology | Churches make some contribution to the collective conscience of societies as large-scale cultural institutions. More likely to understand secular values of society than organisations like sects or cults. This historically meant churches aligned with ruling powers by offering support to said ruling group. Churches more integrated with secular world than sects/cults because of this. |
| Different religious Movements and their Power within Society Denomination | Organised sub-divisions of a major religion. E.g. Roman Catholicism. Hinduism differs because it doesn't recognised a single set of beliefs and practices. Therefore, a denomination is a sub-group that forms within a religion. Breakaway from main group based on ideology, politics and geographic isolation, causing schisms within the religion. Less tightly formed than churhces. Represent an administrative system linking separate groups, enabling co-operation between elemnts of denominations for things like welfare efforts. Demoninations rarely claim monopoly of religious truth, unlike churches. Inclusive. No membership tests, just commitment. Authority structures similar to churches. Variations within organisation and distribution of power between and within denominations. Normally have professional clergy. More democratic than churches/sects/cults. |
| Different religious Movements and their Power within Society Pluralism | Diversity indicative of religious pluralism. Different denominations compete for members, but most are tolerant of other forms with and between religions. General tolerance for atheists. Bruce (1995): this represents major differences between denominations and sects, even though sects often develop through denominations and secratarian cycles (cycles of conflict leading to a discriminated group splitting from the main religion) of dispute that lead to schisms. |
| Different religious Movements and their Power within Society How Sects Develop | Glock and Stark (1965): Sects develop around 2 forms of dissent: 1. Religious: e.g. disenchantent with prevailing relion or belief of purity of religion's ideals. Niebuhr (1929): As a religious organisation becomes established, it's forced to compromise with secuar order. 2. Social: feelings of individual deprivation, types of deprivation like economic, ethical and psychic lead people to form sects. |
| Different religious Movements and their Power within Society Sects | Glock & Stark: deprivation is necessary for a sect to develop. Not the only factor involved, and others include - collective feelings of deprivation - alternative channels for problem resolution being closed. - emergence of leaders with "innovative solutions" to problems face. Wilson (1982): relates sect development to rapid social changes that disrupt nroms, creating despair. Sects can offer of solution to problems, giving something "lasting" in which people believe. Less formally organised than churches. No paid clergy. More emphasis on role of leaders, who claim divine authority. Behaviour more regulated, strict rules. Belonging to a sect a matter of choice. Entry often involves probation and testing. People must progress through levels of knowledge to enter. |
| Different religious Movements and their Power within Society Sect Typologies | Sects more varied than chruches and denominations but can be claffied by the needs of their members and how those needs are met. Yinger (1957): classifies sects in terms of how they see the secular world. Members weigh up likely pros and cons of membership. Pros: feeling superior through access to hidden knwoledge, belonging to a community Cons: separation from friends and family. |
| Different religious Movements and their Power within Society Cults | Price (1979): Deep-rooted fundamental individualism in cult experience. Differ from sects in lacking clearly defined exclusive belief system. Lack of formal organisation structures, difficult to specify maximum size of a cult. Rarely any joining mechanism. Characterised by diversity in numbers and beliefs. Simiarlities: alternatives to conventional values, offer enchancement to conventional values, often reject society Attract those looking for short-term solutions to problems: inclusive. Attraction: simple solutions offered to complex problems - path to happiness and success through the cult lifestyle. Movement Cults (Stark) confrom to internal authority structures. Robbins and Anthony ('82): 1. Authoritarian, 2. Centralised (authority is concentrated in small group at top of organisation) 3. Communal (mebers isolated geographically and philosophically from secular world.) 4. Totalising (communal living is a control mechanism, life is regulated. Van Leen: control extends to "crticism of natural family members." |
| Different religious Movements and their Power within Society Cults - Notes from Theorists | Price (1979): Deep-rooted fundamental individualism in cult experience. Lewis (1998): 1000+ international cults. So varying in practice that difficult to identify their essential characterstics. Zimbardo (1997): "cult methods of recruiting, indoctrinating, and infeluencing mebers" similar to the socialising methods employed in any group or organisation. |
| Different religious Movements and their Power within Society New Religious Movements | Miller (1995): NRMs don't represent a new religious categroy but a combination and repackaging of two old categories (sects/cults) Chryssides (2000): NRMs involve: -answering fundamental questions about life and death, life-coping strategies, ethical codes about how to live For a movement to be classified as an NRM, it must be substantively rather than functionally religious. Recent NRMs attract more young, middle-class recruits than other organisations. Young converts attracted by certainties offered. Promote forms of "truth" closed to questioning than truths offered by alternatives. Goffman ('61): questions of brainwashing given how much control is administered. NRMs may be joined voluntarily. May join because such institutions offer qualities that are lacking in society. "find instant friendship, family, respect, and structure." Wallis: emergence of NRMs canbe seen in terms of rationalisation. Life has become orgnaised in terms of instrumental considerations - concern of efficiency & human purpose. Disenchantment from living in a predictable routine world leads want for meaning |
| Different religious Movements and their Power within Society NRM typologies | Categorising can be difficult. Wallis (1984): classified into 3 broad types based on orientation to and relationship with "outside world." World rejecting: mebers reject secular world by collectively withdrawing contact with that world. Smith (2005): Always find themselves in confornation with the "evil world." World accommodating: Neither rejects nor promots secular world; simply coexist World affirming: Ofers to unlock "hidden potential" in ways that'll make the more successful in secular world. |
| Religion and Social Change Functionalism | Durkheim: summarises perspective of religion as a conservative force promoting social solidarity by saying that in worshipping God people are "worshipping society." Individuals act on their own best interests - not conducive to social living. People must give up their "selfish side." Bental (2004): involves creating 'strong attachment to society.' and Durkheim's "collective conscinece - the "will of society" as external force controls behaviour. Relgion vital cultural institution for values and norms. Promotes and maintains collective conscience through moral codes, participation in ceremonies, and religious rituals. Cn have monopoly on cultural power & influence. Traitional forms no longer have this, and can't ergo integrate people into society as a whole. Where secularisation occurs civil religions can develop (Bellah '67): set of fundamental beliefs shared by majority of people in society. Argument claims societies can't exist without developing communal sense of self. Values defining society define individuals too. May inc tradtional aspects of religion or wholly secular. |
| Religion and Social Change Traditional Marxism | See religion as conservative force for different reasons. Part of political & ideological superstructure in capitalist societies, & role to support economic base. Balibar & Althusser (1970): religion provides the ideological justification for social inequality. inherently conservative force existing to support the economic status quo in 2ways: • Oppressively: imposing set of “god given” values & beliefs. In societies where religious leaders exercise wide-ranging political and economic power. • Supportively: When economic crises threaten soc stability, helps maintain norm by promoting limited but crucial social change. important role in managing social change. Doesn’t initiate social change. Social change is caused by economic conflicts with the social classes: religious ideas play a key role in relation to abilities of powerful classes to use such ideas as rationale for change. |
| Religion and Social Change Social Change Neo-Functionalism | Alexander (1995) on Parson’s (1951) : see Cultural sub-system has a degree of autonomy from other parts of the system, because involves institutions whose primary function is socialisation and spreading cultural values. Cultural institutions canpromote change. Because many religions contain theories of past, present and future, and aren’t just concerned with questions of order but also of change. Change can be transitional or transformative. See modern societies as being in state of moving equilibrium, always adjusting to maintain stability.Religion is a cultural institution, so it’s both subject to and an integral part of this process. Very nature of religion’s structural role means it’s more likely to inhibit than promote large-scale social transformations. |
| Religion and Social Change Social Change Neo-Marxism | Look at role in terms of cultural transitions. Basic economic/political structure don't change, but positions of people and groups do. Role explored in "system maintenance." During economic crises, religion's conservative role acts as channel for social dissent. Preserves stability by promoting limited but crucial change. Contemporary examples include development of liberation theology in South America. Some catholic priests formed political alliances with revolutionary groups to oppose government policies (against the wishes of the Catholic Church.) Bruneau and Hewitt: “theology of liberation becomes the only way to understand the church and its mission; church must be involved, must opt for the poor, and must use its resources to assist liberation. Churches promote their awareness, mobilization, and organisation.” Though difficult to evaluate the success, its existence suggests religions may play a role in explanations for change. |
| Religion and Social Change Social Change Neo-Marxism Robinson (2001) Conditions shaping likelihood of religion becoming force for social change. | • Religious worldview shared by the oppressed class or group. • Religious teachings challenging beliefs of existing order. • Clergy closely associated with oppressed groups. • Single religion shared by oppressed groups. • Differences between religion of oppressed and religion of the ruling class. • Channels of legitimate political dissent blocked or denied. |
| Religion and Social CHange Social Change Weberianism | Weber's analysis cited that religion can initiate social changeGiddens (2006): “Weber differs from Durkheim: concentrating on connection between religion and social change, something which Durkheim ignored.” Contrast to Marx, Weber argues religion isn’t necessarily a conservative force – but religiously inspired movements have produced dramatic social transformations. Example: change from feudal to capitalist society. Calvinism provided "spirit of capitalism" leading to social change. Religion here was a source of social change because two things came together: • Technological changes: opportunism to create wealth in new dynamic ways. • Social group (Calvinists): Had an ideology that allowed the opportunities to be exploited. |
| Religion and Social CHange Social Change Criticisms of Weberianism | Viner and Fanfani have disputed this, questioning the role of religion as an initiator of change, although their evidence was inconclusive. Pierotti (2003): we shouldn’t ignore or reject Weber’s analysis. Something of some sort did happen in the sixteenth century that lead to change n thought and rebellion. Whether the relationship among these is causal or coincidence will be the grounds for speculation for many years. |
| Religion and Social Change Stability AND Change | Canin (2001): It’s a mistake to see religion and its relationship to change as either conservative or radical. May play a contradictory role. Religious organisations have faced the dilemma of pursuing two roles: • Conservative: “traditional paternalistic control of the faithful, focusing their attention away from poverty and suffering in this world and towards miracles and salvation in the next.” • Liberating: Role that at times developed out of peasant discontent. More than providing a sense of liberation, rituals provided framework for the transformation of social order. Summary: Evidence suggests that religious organisations are intimately involved in the promotion of change and maintenance of social order. The two processes may even occur within the same religious organisation. |
| Religion and Links with Modernity and Postmodernity Modernity | Idea that modernity results in 3 interrelated forms of developmental change: - economic & industrial forms of production - political/various forms of democracy - cultural &new powerful belief systems around science. Each has diff effect on role/status of religious organisations and practices, but perception of religion between modernity and religion is one of challenge and loss of power/control. E.g political developments questioning traditional basis of secular power. Relation between modernity & religion expressed in terms of 3 links, each arguing for loss of religious infeunce over individual and society: disappearance, decline and reinvention |
| Religion and Links with Modernity and Postmodernity Modernity - Disappearance | Most extreme interpretation. Associated with Comte (1830) - ruged religion main way of explaining world in past. Pre-modern societies lacked science to understand natural phenomena. Religion and magic filled gaps. Comte: as science developed, need for religious reasons declined. Religion was just neccessary stage of human development characterised by theorising which gradually would disappear as science provided answers. |
| Religion and Links with Modernity and Postmodernity Modernity - Decline | Wilson (1966): Important ft. of modernity is how religion increasingly marginalised as soc force. Retreats from public to private sphere. resulting in decline in power and infleunce over perception. From 2 proceses 1. Modern religions under growing ideological attack from scientific rationalism, more plausible theories e.g. evolution and "the big bang." Result gradual retreat into magic, loosening infleunce. 2. Promise of modernity to create more rational equal soc relationships. Various sects,cults,NRMs filled ideological vacuum in cynical ways. Wilson aruges these ft manipulation of psychologically fragile promised respet and status. Fragmentation of beliefs is evidnence of decline not renewal. Newer religions appeal to "naive, gullible" in ways not serving society. Religion has become marginalised and irrelevant. |
| Religion and Links with Modernity and Postmodernity Modernity - Retreat and Reinvention | Neo-functionalists e.g. Luhmann ('77) Bettinger ('96): religion in late modernity characterised by retreat from sec society and reinvention vai structural differentiation. Become differentiated and specialised to perform effectively. Lambert: modernity makes 2 processes: 1. Decline seen b fewer people engaging in religion, more atheists. 2. Adaptation: religions changing position in soc and new niche in world. Modernity effects: Conservatie reactions resulting in fundamentalism. Invvoation and reinventing. Hervieu-Leger: Prevailing interpretation of relationship is that they're "mutually exclusive." Modernity leads to decline in religion. |
| Religion and Links with Modernity and Postmodernity Postmodernity | No single, definitive postmodernist view of religion. Grassie (1997): "represents range of POVs" that are hard to group in unified perspectives. Taylor (1987): postmodernist approaches include: "God is dead" religion disappearing Resacrilisation Religion evolves, taking new forms. Difficult to reconcile said views under postmodern perspectives, but there are general concepts that can be applied e.g. metanarratives, contradictions and NAMs |
| Religion and Links with Modernity and Postmodernity Postmodernity - Metanarrative | Knowledge about world is orgnaised around series of comepteing metanarratives. Religious metanarratives represent general framework which individual beleifs are orientated around. Narratives promote aren't just truth, but only form of truth Lyotard (1979): "incredulity to metanarratives" needed. No sngle set of beliefs has or can sustain claim to a monopoly of truth. Scepticism suggests decline in ability of religion to exert power as it once did. Gradual retreat into "local narratives." Outcome of greater choiceis that religious symbols lose meaning and power. Baudrillard ('98): sybols become simulacra. Similations aren't imitations but are just as real. Relig simulacra give appearance of religiosit but devalue meaning of relig. Relig no longer holds central place in life, now adornments on identity. New forms of relig belief develop not as metanarratives but as individ narratives. "Picked up, worn and then discarded." Religion is reduced to an identity statement. |
| Religion and Links with Modernity and Postmodernity Postmodernity - Contradictions | Reflects and encourage contradictory sets of beliefs abotu signficiance of relg ideas. At one & same time, there's religious: - decline: loss of control and influence - development: beliefs shift and change. Constant reinvention reflect identity. McLeod ('97): One contradictory link is that religion becomes less important in practice, more important source of identity Globalising processes cause people to lose faith in metanrratives, and make them see religions as representing certainty. Clear signs of move towards privatised forms of worship. Organised religion still survives though, and can re-emerge in significance. |
| Religion and Links with Modernity and Postmodernity Postmodernity - New Age Movements | Melton (2001): refers to wave of religious enthusiasm in 1970s. Have defining characteristics: - Represent new ways of "doing religion," with focus on finding solutions to individual/social problems through "personal transformations." Focus on transformations of self and society e.g. astrology, channelling, and "inner child." - Spiritual consumption. Poeple are consumers "shopping for spirituality." Cowan: search for salvation expressed through concerns of insight and peace of mind. Type of Religious Consumerism that (Fraser 2005): "offers language for the devine without the paraphernalia of church. God without dogma." Brown: NAM followers "less inclined to accept the personal compromises needed to maintain a stable group." Sedgwick (2004): NAMs reflections of individualism in postmodern society, people want to buy into a belief system. |
| Religion and Links with Modernity and Postmodernity Postmodernity - NAMs Four Main Streams within NAMs | Lagone (1993): Tranformational training: how to change personal life through range of techniques and practices. E.g. asceticism. Intellectualism: transformation via exploration of "alternative beliefs." Lifestyle: Changing society through behavioural changes. Occult: Transformations achieved through beliefs and practices like witchcraft, crystals and palmistry. |
| Religion and Links with Modernity and Postmodernity Postmodernity - Postmodern Religion | NAMs represent various beliefs and practices that are rarely organised. This highlights PM pOV and fulfils requiremnts for PM religion. NAMs have very few features in common. People follow to find personal solutions, and individualism makes it hard to find a new age metanarrative. Encourage a "pix and mix" approach to problem-solving. Choose elements that appeal to them. Consumer experience notbale feature of new age religion, and consumers can discard ideas that don't suit them anymore. Central condition of postmodernity is experience. People should feel inspired within PM religion to ahnge and make commitments. Lattin: This "validation through experience," reflects postmodern uncertainties. This "mysticism" appeal to those searching for meaning where traditional religion has failed. |
| Religion and Links with Modernity and Postmodernity Postmodernity - Fundamentalism | Bauman (1997): Fundamentalism refers to forms of belief advocating strict observance of the "fundamental beliefs" of a religion. Fundamentlaists draw strength from ability to provide certainties to uncertain world. Develops to remove the risk by removing choices that create uncertainty, by giving clear moral guidelines they remove the fear of taking risks. Sahgal and Yuval-Davis: "basically political movements whith religious imperative seeking ways to harness modern state to their purpose." Modern politcal movements using religion as a basis for their attempt to win or consolidate power and extend social control. |
| Religion and Links with Modernity and Postmodernity Postmodernity - Features of all fundamentalist religions | Saghal and Yuval-Davis (1992): 1. Claim their version of religion "the only true one" ad all other forms are ergo heretical. 2. Movement feels threatened by alternative secular and religious views of the world 3. Exercise control over individuals and society across three areas: ideological: what members believe internal: how members behave external: how society should behave Use religion as a vehicle to "halt undesirable political changes," and "change society to suit their ideological beliefs. |
| Religion and Links with Modernity and Postmodernity Postmodernity - Fundamentalism: Globalisation | Girouz: Global economic & cultural processesexpose people to different views and beliefs, leading to ideas of moral relativism - nothing is wholly good or bad. WIthout moral certainty, many people see world as frightning and dangerous and so feel alone - leading to fundamentalism providing certainties "given by God." In Pm societies, fundamentalist religions provide believers with sense of identity via close community, as Castell('77) calls it: "collective identity," based on set of unchanging moral codes shared by believers and imposed on non-believers. |
| Debates about Secularisation | Secularisation is ways in which religious influence has declined in contemporary societies. Complicated by 2 problems: 1. how religion is defined: inclusive defs unlikely to find evidence of decline because they include behaviours like NAMs, which aren't seen as religious by exclusive defs. 2. Point at whch comparisons are made: Further back studies go, the more likely to find higher levels of religious behaviour. No agreement about what point "in the past" can be chosen for this. |
| Debates about Secularisation Religiosity | McGuire (2002): religion has a "dual character" involving measurement across individual indicators: whether someone holds beliefs and if they're orthodox. Social indicators: participation and attendance. Cornwall et al. (1986): three dimensions of religiosity representing level of commitment. knowing, doing, feeling. |
| Debates about Secularisation Religosity - Belief (knowing) | Possible to believe without belonging, and belong wthout believing. Uncovering religious beleifs presents reliability problems. Hughes and Church (2010): proxy indicator of belief, e.g. if people believe in "higher power" - if so then indicative of holding religious belief. If not then unlikely to hold further religious beliefs. Unhelpful as a broad measure of belief. NRMs and NAMs define religiosity in terms of "spirituality" which is also hard to define. |
| Debates about Secularisation Religiosity - Participation (doing) | The extent to which people particiapte in religious activities can be viewed in 2 ways: 1. Attendance at religious services/meeting Lack of a standard way to count attedenace makes it hard to track changes over time, making estimates unreliable. Alternative is to estimate through social surveys. 2. Membership figures: more reliable and valid measure of participation because count those who officially join organisation. Membership can be linked to ethnic identity, so must distinguish between active members and those considered members because of their background. Understanding figures further complicated by: smaller religions reluctant to reveal numbers to "outisde researchers." mebership may be increased to create impression of popularity when orgnaisation supplies own data. Some religious organisations don't enrol mebers. |
| Debates about Secularisation Religiosity - Commitment (feeling) | Abrams et al (1995): More valid way to understand religiosity is to measure commitment and extent to which people feel they belong to a religion. This uses scale that combines 4 main commitments: 1. Disposition: philosopical dimension to religiosity through questions about spiritual ideas and experiences. 2. Orthodox belief: extent to which people believe in ideas e.g. God/soul 3. Moral values: how these are are influenced by religious values & teachings. 4. Institutional attachment: frequency of attendance |
| Debates about Secularisation The Kendal Project | Good example of methods and problems associated with research into religiosity and secularisation by Heelas et al (2004) Study of Kendal's (un/)conventional religious behavioir through recording attedance, interviewing congregations and observing new age practicioners. Involved counting everyone who attended church, and everyone who participated in alternative forms of spirituality. Shows it's possible to accurately measure dimensions of religiosity across different kinds of spirituality, but also shows limitations: - Study of one small town in one country took 2 years. - Studied only Christian churches. - Questionable grouping and defining of "alternative spiritualities." |
| Debates about Secularisation Operationalising Secularisation | Various dimensions come together in terms of how we can measure secularisation across 3 dimensions: institutional, practical and ideological Question is whether evidence of decline has to be found across all three dimensions, 2/3 or just one for secularisation to be occuring. Bruce (2002): Can only measure secularisation across 2 types - institutional (reduced role of religious organisations) - organisational (questionning religious ideas.) Marshall (1994): Must consider posisble changes to nature of religious belief. Focus ergo should be on "privatisation of belief" rather than influence. Means measuring people's "core beliefs" as expressed through - importance of religion in a society - How seriously people take religion - Number of people taking it seriously Problem isn't just objectively measuring, but that there's little to no objective date from past against which to compare results |
| Debates about Secularisation Pro-secularisation | Claim that religion has declined in significance at least in developed world. Progressive disengagement from where religion dominated all aspects of life from past to present. Crockett & Voas (2004): as societies modernise "social signficance of religion declines": - ideas that once had hold over people are weakened by modern society. - People now exposed to science challenging religion. - Individual outlooks through religious pluralism. Religious diversity means undermines pplausibility of any one religion leading to a decline in influnece. Ability to impose religious discipline and sanctions weakened. Hadden (2001): Best understand secularisation by thinking of its impact - cognitively: organisation of info/beliefs - institutionally: many functions once performed by religion taken over - behaviourally: religious behaviour retreats into private sphere. Matter of "personal faith." |
| Debates about Secularisation Pro-secularisation - Evidence | Divided into 3 areas: 1. Institutional decline: - Privatised beliefs: relegated to personal beliefs. - Loss of practical function from domination before. 2. Practical decline involving fall in religious engagement. Sharp decline since 19th Century. Only 10% UK part of main Christian church. 3. Ideological: "Believing without belonging" seen as evidence against secularisation but Bruce (2001): Strong evidence for general decline in religious beliefs, just lagging behind decline of practice. Wilson (1982): individual dimension to secularisation is how people's understanding of natural and social world has changed. We don't turn to magic and religion to understnd the world now that we have secular, scientific explanations. |
| Debates about Secularisation Anti-secularisation | Martin (1978): Impossible to distinguish between religious and secular in way that's accessible to academic study, belief s ystems combined under the name religion are varied and diverse. Concept of secularisation become an intellectual tooll used to attack religion. Stark (1999): infleunce of religious organisations in past overstated and in present understated. Religion takes lead in promoting moral codes and ethics. Strong undercurrent of individual religious belief, even in secular activities. Religion has evolved and changed, not declined. Less likely to follow religious practices because they serve purposes that are performed by other insitutions. People are surrounded by leisure services, so religion no longer serves a recreational function. Evidence for evolution. |
| Debates about Secularisation Anti-secularisation: Evidence | Berger (1999): In US church attendance is rising. Secularisation doesn't have international causes - questions claim that secularisation is inevitable feature of modernisation. Kelley (1972): secularisation related to forms of religious orgnaisation. Religious practice declined only in organisations that were image conscious, democratic in internal affairs, and changed to accomodate audiences. Contrasting: Religious growth occured in fundamentalist organisations that offered basic ideas and principles that were autcratic, patriarchal and traditional. Ergo, if religos orgnaisation evolves to become consumerist, it may lose mebers. It neither attracts those looking for something different or keep those who want tradition |
| Debates about Secularisation Shopping for Religion | Alterantive way of approaching secularisation involves religious economy theory. Iannaccone (1994): secularisation too limited an explanation for developments in pm societies. Religion shouldn't be seen as a cultural institution evalauted in terms of success promoting values in culturally homogenous societies where relgions have no competition. Past: world religions established "monolopolies of belief" destroying competition. Organisations must compete to survive. This competition encourages: innovation, invigoration, reinvigoration. Established religions slow to change in face of increased competition, as congregations decline, they focus on retaining monopoly postion. Anti-secularisation theorists agree that form of secularisation occurs among established religions as they lose members. Just because religions secularise, doesn't mean decline of religion itself. Argument is that nature and shape of religious organisations has changed. Instead of an overall decline, evidence of different forms of belief and practice that ar harer to quantify but are still religious. |
| Debates about Secularisation Resacrilisation | Anti-sec theorists aruge religious changes are evidence of resacrilisation - people becoming more religious and spiritual. - past, people had no choice but to be religious. - People now choose their religion, and thus show greater commitment.Fewer, more committed believers = resacrilisation Supporters believe resacrilisation explains fundamentalist movements. But: Crockett/Voas: UK religious markets more competitive. Little no corresponding rise in practice Norris/Inglehart (2004): countries w/ closest links between church&state have highest levels of religious practice. Secularisation debate in constant state of transformation. Evidence for/against depends more on how religion/religiosity is defined rather than any sense of decline or resacrilisation Pro-secularisation theory: insitutes become secularisaed, then organisation practices, then individual beliefs. Anti-secularisation theory: individual's prone to religion, serves human need. Practical features may change, but people remain essentially religious. |
| Debates about Secularisation Post-secularisation | Some aruge the secularising processes don't indovlve simple movement from religious to secular, and thus debate needs reframing. More than pro/anti Phillips (2004): should be reconceptulaised around differentiation. Extent of secularising tendencies limited to institutions and practices. Post-sec argues that differentiation involves separation between social structures and actions. Considers religiosity in terms of institutions & practices but not beliefs. Unimportant whether peoplesay they believe in ideas, what's important is what they do/don't do because of these beliefs. - if beliefs are strongly held that they become basis of social action, must be addressed by secularistion theory. - if bekiefs are matter of preference, they are irrelevant to wider debate Sommerville (1998): institutional differentation isn't something that "leads to secularisation" it IS secularisation. |
| Debates about Secularisation Participation | Putnma: rework idea of "believing without belonging" arguing that social capital is the "social glue" binding people as a society. Cohen and Prusak (2001): involves "trust, mutual understanding, and shared values that bind members and communities." Putnam: Modern societies seen gradual withdrawal of public participation in all areas of soc. Suggests secularisation of participation is part of general cultural transition, not one restricted to religious organisations. Davie (2002): Decline in relgious participation is part of general "process of withdrawal from the public sphere." |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Social Class | Relationship between class and beliefs complex, - Measurements and defis vary - Navone (2002) : Measuring belief complex, saying you are religious does not mean that you are. Based on these limitations, most data about the relationship suggests few differences in belief about existence of 'god' or a higher power. Practice shows closer correlation between class and areas of attendance at services. Regular attendees more likely upper class. Those who never attend bar weddings/funerals more likely working class |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Social Class - Explanations | Relation varies across diff socs w/ diff beliefs O'Beirne (2004): "respondents affiliated to particular faiths share certain socio-economic experiecnes and characteristics." In developed namtions, religion historically source of status in u&m class. These functions no longer apply in society but could in developing nations. In developed socs decline in signi of religion as source of group idenitty important in terms of social control. O'B: little evidence of belief/practice forming significant part f self-idenity in Chirstians. Globally: religion is main source of ethnic identity for all social classes. Religion no longer represents source of hope for the deprived. Exception is Islam. In UK Muslims inhabit the lowest social strata, and belief is integral to identity. Provides moral codes for a community and mode of group/individ identity. |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Social Class - Explanations Postmodern | Concepts of Globalisation and Postmoderning change meaing of: - Religion No encompasses a diversity of meanings through to NAMs - Social CLass: difficult to measure but appears to have both looser individual meaning and less as a collective concept PM societies diff in terms of 2 kinds of reliationship: - Individually: People less likely to define in terms of class and less likely to behave in ways reflecting perception of class relationships. Petre (99): general withdrawal from all forms of public participation in developed nations - Institutionally: religious pluralism featut of societies. Range of consumer choices between and within religions. Religious affiliation relate more to personal than collective identities of past. Weaking of traditional class associations along with more consumer choice explains why social class no longer correlates with affiliation. Closer relationship between class and marginal groups: Stark: cults draw members from higher classes. Kelly 1992: NRMs populated by educated m-class.i |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Gender | Walter & Davie (1998): "in western, Christian societies, woemn more religious than men." O'Beirne (2004): in UK 83% women, 74% men religious Bader (2003): NRMS and NAMs have more female participants. Reliabilo and validity about beliefs questionable. Data existing suggests women believe more strongly in things like God. Crockett and Voas: 36% more British women than Men believe in God 15% diff in US Women more likely to pray alone and have higher belief in concepts like life after death and heaven. |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Gender - Participation | Women have greater involvement in religious activities. Crockett & Voas: more pronounced among 21-40 bracket. O'Beirne: Christian women more likley than men to participate, reverse in Islam (reflecting gender norms.) Pattern is global. Pew Research Center (2009): women more likley to attend church service and regard religion as important in life. Malmgreen (1987): Internationally, religion "has been predominantly female sphere," but it's generally men who monopolise positions of authority. |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Gender - Explanations | Feminist explanations focus on gender socialisation. Men & women develip diff cultural identities explains patriachal participation. Steggerda (1993): Christianity promotes concepts of care attractive to women. Translate family role into relig behaviour. Levels of religiosity between working males & females similar. Daly (1968): patriarchal forms of religion have attraction in offering order/rules Religions provide women with shelter and sense of belonging. Daly (1973): Benefits come at price of submitting to patriarchal control. Religions male-dminated "serve interests of sexist society." WOmen rarely in positions of power, inc in NRMs. Palmer (1994): women want order in NRMs, not power. Arguing that female involvement in religion is for sense of cultural identity. Patriarchal order 3 organise types: complementary groups - gender has diff qualities unity groups polarity groups - men superior sex |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Gender - Further Feminist Explanations | Other ideas see female participation as "challenging institution from within." Winter: should look at how men/women involved in changing through "defecting in place." Promoting changes within religions in - spaces within religions - ideologies supporting female authority within religious ovements. Matriachal/fatrifocal movements very few. Swatos (1998): "feministation of religions." Members of clergy seen as helping professionals rather than as represenatitves of God's justice. |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Gender - Risk | Sex-role socialisation fails to explain gender diff in religious beliefs. Stark&Finke(2000): Women more religious because: more involved in socialising children less involved in their careers more likely to join social groups. Miller (2002): little evidence to support idea that "gender differences are product of differntial socialisation." Kanazwa: Men more likely to have risky behaviour, like not believing in God because of biological evolution. Stark: "in every country and culture men were less religious than women." Lizardo& Collett (2005): reject gender differences explaining religiosity: Gender differences in risk preference related to class-based differences in socialisation of children. Women raised by educatied mothers show lower religiisty than those less educated Fahter's education has little effect on religiosity. Levels of gender religiosity explanaaied by class based differences in socialisation. Young people have converging gender attitudes to religion. Wouldn't happen if belief was fundamentally evolutionary. |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Ethnicity | Marked differences in religoisity across countries. Socs with high religiosity levels unlikely to show great ethnic differences To understand ethnic-relig relation, need to look at developed societies with lower levels of religosity to see if some ethnic groups are more religious than others. Cook (2003): 'Collecting data on ethnicity difficult, no consensus on what consistutes an ethnic group' British soc reflects a range of ethnicities and religious affiliations. Different ethinic groups associate themselves with different religions, but there's also diversity within the same group. E.g. India: mix of Hindu, Sikh, Muslim, and Christians. |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Ethnicity - Identity | O'Beirne (2004): Religion is relevant factor in 'person's self-description, particularly for people from the Indian subcontient.' Suggesting 'religion important to migrant minority ethnic groups because integral to their identity.' Signficiant variations in affiliations and levels of belief, based on gender and age across all ethnicities. Age significant when comparing experiences of different generations of immigrants and their ethnicities. Generational differences vary depending on classification e.g first-generation (older), and third-generation (younger.) |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Ethnicity - Explanations | UK: highest religious affiliations are in Pakistani (92%) minorities. Berthoud (1998): these groups among poorest in UK society, suggests correlation between poverty/class, and religiosity among some ethnic groups. Interesting correlation, but deprivation isn't a sufficient explanation for higher levels of religiosity. Christians profess high levels, but doesn't translate into practice. Crockett and Voas: 'All major ethnic minorities are more religious than white British.' Questionsof why some ethnic groups display higher religiosity under similar economic circumstances answered by issues related to being an ethnic minority. Key to understanidng religiosity in majority and minorities is in 2 areas: inter-group relationships: how diff minority groups relate to other groups and to the ethnic majority. intra-group relationships: differences within ethnic-minority groups such as class, gender, age and how these groups interact with ethnic majority. |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Ethnicity - Identity in relation to explanations | Diference experiences relate to questions of identity, considered in both self-perception of diff ethnic groups and the social factors contributing to the 'constructive mix' of identities. Measured differences explained in 2 types of 'believer.' - Nominal: where poeple are born into a religion. Associate themselves to it but don't have firm faith - Authentic: people who demonstrate their beliefs through practice/commitment Nominal an authentic beleifs raise questions however over why nominal belief should be 'less authentic' than overtly practised beliefs: - private beliefs may be held without need to have them publically reaffirmed - public practice may be indicative of social processes like cultural pressures or status actions rather than strict religious belief. |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Privatised Belief: Agree | Bruce (1995): Modern secular societies have 2 spheres of behaviour involving diff values and norms: Public: ideas of rationality, instrumentalism, universal values/norms Private: expression and affection. individual set apart from public sphere Christianity has slowly retreated from public sphere into private sphere of relig belief. People still attend services, but church knows that for the ethnic majority, function of religion has changed. People still need things, but are satisfied by other institutions e.g. media. Religion doesn't disappear from life, but is 'reworked to confine to prisphe' Davie (2001): remains important even where in private sphere. People still feel need to make public affirmations e.g. weddings. Bruce: situation diff for min ethnics. Groups find selves in hostile societiies, and look to familiar tradition in relig. these require ffirimation through communal gatherings. Practices source of protection, cultural defence in challenging world. Therefore some religions remain in public sphere. Suggests religions relate to sense of belonging to definable groups thro |
| Sociological studies of the relationship between beliefs, organisation and religious groups. Privatised Belief: Disagree | Davie (2001): remains important even where in private sphere. People still feel need to make public affirmations e.g. weddings. Bruce: situation diff for min ethnics. Groups find selves in hostile societiies, and look to familiar tradition in relig. these require ffirimation through communal gatherings. Practices source of protection, cultural defence in challenging world. Therefore some religions remain in public sphere. Suggests religions relate to sense of belonging to definable groups through public practices For EMs, religion performs functions for identities: provides homogeneity, shared purpose, and cultural permanence. Functions to aide emotional involvement and sense of well-being through membership. Emotional aspect of beleif valued in unfamiliar world. Belonging to coherent group that values person's presence gives sense of power in world. Especially signficiant for politically marginalised groups. |
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