Changing the way you learn

Question	Answer
What is an 'aim' during an experiment?	A psychologist's broad statement about what they intend to do.
What should an aim be able to outline?	• The precise area of study • What the study is trying to achieve For example: To describe the effects of stress on memory.
What is a 'hypothesis' and the two types?	It is a precise testable prediction of what is expected to happen. Hypotheses can be directional or non-directional.
Define what a 'directional hypothesis' is.	This predicts a direction of the results (more than, less than, faster, slower, increase, decrease).
Define what a 'non-directional' hypothesis.	This predicts a difference with results but not a direction.
What are the different variables?	Independent variables - what you change. Dependent variables - what is effected by changing the IV. Control variables - A variable which is not at all altered and is used as a norm/baseline to compare results to.
What are co-variables?	To measure correlations between two variables.
What are extraneous variables?	These are potential other influences on the dependent variable and should be controlled if possible (e.g. age, gender...)
What is operationalisation?	A hypothesis must be written clearly, showing what is being altered and what is being measured. To operationalise is to be specific about measurements, units of measurement etc.
What are the three types of hypothesis the exam board may mention?	Correlations - This could be mentioned as a relationship. Differences - It should be obvious they are looking for a difference. Associations - The exam board will use the term association.
What is a confounding variable?	An extraneous variable which is not controlled and has effected results. The study will now be open to criticism.
Name four different methods of controlling the effects of extraneous variables.	• Random allocation. • Counter balancing. • Randomisation. • Standardisation.
What is random allocation?	Participants have same chance to be allocated to conditions to control participant variables (independent groups).
Define the purpose of counter balancing.	Participants experience half conditions in one order and other half in opposite order to control for the effects of repeated measures/order effects.
What is randomisation?	Using chance to control bias. Helps when designing materials and deciding on the order of conditions.
What is standardisation?	Wherever possible, participants should have same experience. To ensure procedures are standardised there could be a step by step guide.
What are investigator effects?	When a researcher hopes for a certain result in their research, they could, unless controlled, give subtle clues to participants (e.g. through facial expressions). This could be conscious or unconscious. The identity of the researcher may also impact results (for example with racial bigotry).
What are demand characteristics?	A participant may have more motivation than just complete the study for the sake of the researcher. They may wish to help or hinder results and could modify their behaviour accordingly - especially if they believe they have found it easy to 'guess' what they think a researcher is looking for.
Define what a pilot study is.	• Small scale practice investigation. • Conducted before full research project. • Completed in order to identify potential problems with design, method (methodological problems) or analysis and to gain feedback.
How do researchers control unwanted effects?	• Single blind study or • Double blind study
What is a single blind study?	• Procedure to reduce demand characteristics. • Participants do not know condition they're placed in (deceived). • This reduced the chance participants will guess how to manipulate the results.
Define what a double blind study is?	• Procedure to reduce investigator effects. • Neither participant OR investigator know which condition participants are in. • Therefore, investigator unable to give clues to participant.
What could an investigator be tempted to do without a double blind trial?	They may consciously or subconsciously hint to the patient about which condition they received.
Why may an investigator be tempted to make a participant aware of the condition they're in?	To get the results which would be the most profitable and support the researcher's theory. This is subjective and biased.
What is 'population' and how does it relate to a 'sample'?	• A population is a large group of individuals the researcher would like to study. • It would be impractical for many studies to include too many participants. So a sample is gained from this selection. • Sample is representative of population so findings can be generalised.
What is the RANDOM sampling technique?	All have equal chance of being selected. Complete list of names is needed, participants are selected by lottery.
Evaluate the RANDOM sampling technique.	+ Researcher cannot pick participant who may support hypothesis so this method is free from researcher bias. - Can be very difficult and time consuming to gain sample. May not get representative sample due to random nature of selection.
What is the SYSTEMATIC sampling technique?	When every nth number of a target population is selection e.g. every 5th student on a register.
Evaluate the SYSTEMATIC sampling technique.	+ Avoids researcher bias as once selected, the researcher cannot change who was chosen. Likely to be representative. - Chance of getting unrepresentative selection.
Define the STRATIFIED sampling technique.	Reflects the size of groups within a population. E.g. if 30% of the population being researched are Polish, in a sample size of 50, 15 Polish participants would be required for the study to be representative. Selection within each group is random.
Evaluate the STRATIFIED sampling technique.	+ Avoids researcher bias due to random sampling of sub groups. - Time consuming to gather.
Define the OPPORTUNITY sampling technique.	Researchers may take anyone willing and able to take part in their research.
Evaluate the OPPORTUNITY sampling technique.	+ Convenient, cost and time efficient. - Two forms of bias - unrepresentative of target population (as drawn from small area) and researcher is able to pick or leave out participants they don't like (researcher bias).
What is the VOLUNTEER sampling technique?	Participants select themselves to be part of sample. May be after seeing after e.g. in newspaper.
Evaluate the VOLUNTEER sampling technique.	+ Acquiring is easy and time efficient. - Suffers from Volunteer Bias as certain type of person is likely to put themselves forward, may affect results and is not representative.
What are the two types of data?	Qualitative and quantitative.
What is quantitative data?	• Numerical (numbers). • Often quantitative techniques will gather data through individual scores from participants. • Data open to being analysed statistically - can be easily converted to graphs, charts etc. • Can be used for behaviour (e.g. reaction time).
Positively evaluate quantitative data.	+ Data less open to interpretation and collection method less influenced by interviewer effects and demand characteristics (Objective). + Answers can be precisely categorised and analysed with statistics and graphs. + High in reliability due to strict procedures, repeatable and reproducible.
List the weaknesses of quantitative data.	- This lacks detail and is limited to the expectations of the expectations, may not include all valid info. - Lacks ecological validity as it's usually in an artificial setting, less likely to behave naturally.
What is qualitative data?	• Non-numerical (words). • e.g. transcript from an interview, notes from a counselling session. • Used for attitudes, opinions and beliefs.
List positive evaluations for qualitative data.	+ Information is rich and details, participants are able to develop thoughts. Produces more valid data. + Collected in real-life setting, behave naturally. Rich in ecological validity.
List negative evaluations for qualitative data.	- Information is subjective, data is open to interpretation. Researcher likely to reach conclusion matching own bias. - Imprecise non-numerical measurements, can be difficult to ensure data is focused on research question and is difficult to summarise. - Low in reliability as difficult to replicate.
Define primary data.	• Refers to original data collected specifically towards research aim. • Data not been published before (freshly observed and recorded). • Data collected by questionnaires, interviews or observations.
Evaluate primary data (3).	+ More reliable than secondary data - not manipulated by other researchers. + Valid as collected to answer specific/exact research question. - Time and effort on part of the researcher.
What is secondary data?	• Data collected for another aim and already published. • Often data has been subjected to statistical testing and significance is known. • Gathered from books, magazines, diaries, past-recorded studies etc.
Evaluate secondary data.	+ Can be inexpensive and easy to collect. - Data may not match research question it is being applied to. -

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	Created by Emma Chell about 8 years ago