Research Methods

Question	Answer
Aim	The researcher's area of interest - what they are looking at
Bar Chart	A graph that shows the data in the form of categories (eg behaviours observed) that the researchers wishes to compare
Behavioural Categories	Key behaviours, or, collections of behaviours, that the researcher conducting the observation will pay attention to and record
Case Study	In-depth investigation of a single person, group or event, where data is gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (eg observations and interviews)
Closed questions	Questions where there are fixed choices of response (eg yes/no) They generate quantitative data
Co - variables	The variables investigated in a correlation
Concurrent Validity	Comparing a new test with another test of the same thing to see if they produce similar results. If they do, the new test has concurrent validity
Confidentiality	Unless agreed beforehand, participants have the right to expect that all data collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous
Confounding Variable	An extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure of the true source of the change to the DV
Content Analysis	Technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written data into categories - converting qualitative data to quantitative data
Control group	A group that is treated normally and gives a measure of how people behave when they are not exposed to the experimental treatment
Controlled Observation	An observation study where the researchers control some variables - often takes place in a laboratory setting
Correlational Analysis	A mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether scores for two co-variables are related
Counterbalancing	A way of trying to control Order Effects in a repeated measures design (eg, half the participants to condition A followed by B and the other half do B followed by A)
Covert Observation	Also known as an undisclosed observation, the participants are not aware their behaviour is being observed
Critical Value	The value that a test statistic must reach in order for the hypothesis to be accepted
Debriefing	After completing the research, the true aim is revealed to the participant. The aim of a debrief is to return the person to the state they were in before they took part
Deception	Involves misleading participants about the purpose of a study
Demand Characteristics	These occur when the participants try to make sense of the research situation they are in and try to guess the purpose of the research or try to present themselves in a good way to the researcher
Dependant Variable (DV)	The variable that is measured to tell the researcher the outcome
Descriptive Statistics	Analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarise data in a meaningful way
Directional Hypothesis	A one tailed hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or relationship (eg, boys are more helpful than girls)
Measures of Dispersion	These show how a set of data is spread out They are Range and Standard Deviation
Double blind Control	Participants are not told the true purpose of the research and the experimenter is also blind to at least some aspects of the research design
Ecological Validity/ External Validity	The extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalised to real life settings
Ethical guidelines	These are provided by the BPS - they are the 'rules' by which all psychologists should operate, including those carrying out research
Ethical Issues	There are 3 main ethical issues that occur in psychological research - Deception Lack of informed consent Lack of protection of participants
Evaluation Apprehension	Participants behaviour is distorted as they fear being judged by observers
Event Sampling	A target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs
Experimental Group	The group that received the experimental treatment
Extraneous Variable	Variables that if not controlled may affect the DV and provide a false impression that an IV has produced changes when it hasn't
Face Validity	The degree to which a procedure, especially a psychological test or assessment, appears effective in terms of its stated aims.
Field Experiment	An experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV
Histogram	A graph that is used for continuous data (eg test scores). There should be no space between the bars because the data is continuous
Hypothesis	This is a formal statement or prediction of what the researcher expects to find. It needs to be testable
Independent Groups Design	An experimental design where each participant only takes part in one condition of the IV
Independent Variable (IV)	The variable that the experimenter manipulates and changes
Inferential Statistics	Inferential Statistics are ways of analysing data using statistical tests that allow the researcher to make conclusions about whether a hypothesis was supported by the results
Informed Consent	Psychologists should ensure that all participants are helped to fully understand all aspects of the research before they agree to take part
Inter Observer Reliability	The extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in the same way
Internal Validity	In relation to experiments, whether the results were due to the manipulation of the IV rather than other factors such as extraneous variables or demand characteristics
Interval Level Data	Data measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on a scale
Investigator Effects	These result from the effects of a researcher's behaviour and characteristics on an investigation
Laboratory Experiment	An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV
Matched Pairs Design	An experimental design where pairs of participants are matched on important characteristics and one member allocated to each condition of the IV
Measures of central tendency	A measurement of data that indicates where the middle of the information lies e.g. mean, median and mode
Mean	Measure of central tendency calculated by adding all the scores in a set of data together and dividing by the total number of scores
Median	Measures of central tendency calculated by arranging scores in a set of data from lowest to highest and finding the middle score
Mode	Measure of central tendency which is the most frequently occurring score in a set of data
Meta analysis	A technique where rather than conducting new research with participants, the researchers examine the results of several studies that have already been conducted
Natural Experiment	An experiment where the change in IV already exists rather than being manipulated by the experimenter
Naturalistic Observation	An observation study conducted in the environment where the behaviour would naturally occur
Negative Correlation	A relationship exists between two co-variables where as one increases, the other decreases
Nominal Level Data	Frequency count data that consists of the number of participants falling into categories
Non Directional Hypothesis	A two tailed hypothesis that does not predict the difference or relationship between the variables
Normal Distribution	An arrangement of data that is symmetrical and forms a bell shaped pattern where the mean, median and mode all fall at the highest peak
Observed value	The value that you have obtained from conducting your statistical test
Observer Bias	Occurs when the observers know the aims of the study or the hypothesis and allow this knowledge to influence their observations
Open Questions	Questions where there is no fixed response and participants can give any answer they like. They generate qualitative data
Operationalizing Variables	This means clearly describing the variables (IV and DV) in terms of how they will be manipulated (IV) and measured (DV)
Opportunity sample	A sampling technique where participants are chosen because they are easily available
Order Effects	Order Effects can occur in a repeated measures design and refers to how the positioning of tasks influences the outcome e.g. practice effects or boredom effect on the second test
Ordinal Level Data	Data that is capable of being placed in rank order
Overt Observation	Also known as a disclosed observation as participants give their permission for their behaviour to be observed
Participant Observation	Observation study where the researcher actually joins the group or takes part in the situation they are observing
Peer Review	Before going to publication, a research report is sent to other psychologists who are knowledgeable in the research topic for them to review the study and check for any problems
Pilot study	A small scale study conducted to ensure the method will work according to plan. If it doesn't, amendments can be made
Positive Correlation	A relationship exists between two co-variables where as one increases, so does the other
Presumptive Consent	Asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in a study, if yes, presume the sample would also take part
Primary Data	Information that the researcher has collected themselves for a specific purpose
Prior General Consent	Before participants are recruited they are asked whether they are prepared to take part in research where they may be deceived about the true purpose
Probability	How likely something is to happen - can be expressed as a number or a percentage
Protection of Participants	Participants should be protected from issues affected physical or mental health. A risk of harm must be no greater than that to which they are exposed to in everyday life
Qualitative data	Descriptive information that is expressed in words
Quantitative Data	Information that can be measured in and be written down in numbers
Quasi Experiment	An experiment often conducted in controlled conditions where the IV simply exists so there can be no random allocation to the conditions
Questionnaire	A set of written questions that participants fill in themselves
Random Sampling	A sampling technique where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected
Randomisation	Refers to the practice of using chance methods
Range	A measure of dispersion which is the difference between the lowest and highest value in a set of scores
Reliability	Whether something is consistent
Repeated Measures Design	An experimental design where each participant takes part in both/all of the condition of the IV
Representative Sample	A sample that closely matches the target population as a whole in terms of key variables and characteristics
Retrospective Consent	Once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants give their permission for the use of their data
Right to Withdraw	Participants should be aware that they can leave the study at any time, even if they have been paid to take part
Sample	A group of people that are drawn from the target population to take part in a research investigation
Scatter gram	Used to plot correlations where each pair of values is plotted against each other to see if there is a relationship between them
Secondary Data	Information that some else has collected
Semi structured interview	Interview that has some predetermined questions but the researcher can develop others in response to the answers given by the participants
Sign Test	A statistical test used to analyse the direction of differences of scores between the same or matched pairs of subjects under two experimental conditions
Significance	If the result of a statistical test is significant it is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance
Semi Blind Control	Participants are not told the true purpose of the research
Skewed distribution	An arrangement of data that is not symmetrical as data is clustered to one end of the distribution
Social Desirability Bias	Participants' behaviour is distorted as they modify it in order to be seen in a positive light by anyone else involved
Standard Deviation	A measure of the average spread of scores around the mean. The greater the standard deviation, the more spread out the scores are
Standardised Instructions	The instructions given to each participant are kept identical to help prevent experimenter bias and to allow it to be replicated
Standardised procedures	In every step of the research all the participants are treated in exactly the same way and so all have the same experience
Stratified Sample	A sampling technique where groups of participants are selected in proportion to their frequency in the target population
Structured Interview	Interview where the questions are fixed and the interviewer reads them out and records the responses
Structured Observation	An observation study using a predetermined coding scheme to record the participants behaviour
Systematic Sample	A sampling technique where every nth person in a list of the target population is selected
Target Population	The group that the researchers draw the sample from and wants to be able to generalise the findings to
Temporal Validity	Refers to how likely it is that the time period when a study was conducted has influenced the findings and whether they can be generalised to other periods of time
Test-Retest Reliability	Involves presenting the same participants with the same test on 2 separate occasions and seeing whether there is a positive correlation between the two
Thematic Analysis	A method for analysing qualitative data which involves identifying, analysing and reporting patterns within the data
Time Sampling	A way of sampling the behaviour that is being observed by recording what happens in a series of fixed time intervals
Type 1 Error	Is a false positive. It is where you accept the alternative/experimental hypothesis when it is false
Type 2 Error	Is a false negative. It is when you accept the null hypothesis when it is false
Unstructured Interview	Also known as a clinical interview, there are no fixed questions, just general aims and it is more like a conversation
Unstructured Observation	Observation where there is no checklist so every behaviour seen is written down in as much detail as possible
Validity	Whether something is true and accurate - measures what it sets out to measure
Volunteer Sample	A sampling technique where participants put themselves forward to take part in research, often by answering an advert

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	Created by Emma Chester about 8 years ago