Definition of abnormality:
A psychological of
behavioural state leading
to impairment of
interpersonal functioning
and/or distress to others
Deviation from social norms
Any behaviour that varies or
differs from societies social
explicit or implicit rules is
considered abnormal
Explicit rules- i.e. laws
Implicit rules-
unspoken rules i.e.
not laughing at
funerals
Weakness: What is
considered a social
norm in one culture
might not be in another
Strength: Accounts
for developmental
norms
Failure to Function Adequately
Strength: This
definition makes
abnormality to
judge
objectively
Weakness: There are
times when it would
be perfectly normal
to experience some
of the criteria
A person is abnormal
if they are unable to
cope with the
demands of everyday
life
Set of abnormal
characteristics:
-personal
distress/suffering
-maladaptive
behaviour
-unconventionality
of behaviour
-unpredictability
-irrationality
-observer
discomfort
-violation of moral
standards
Statistical Infrequency
Strength: When using
this definition to define
abnormality no
judgements are made
Weakness
Some rare
behaviours and
characteristics
are desirable
Behaviours that are
statistically rare should be
seen as abnormal
Deviation from ideal
mental health
Strength: This definition
allows the therapist and
client to target specific
areas
Weakness: The criteria
set by this definition
are unrealistic
If someone deviates
from Jahoda's list of
ideal mental health
they are considered
abnormal
Jahoda's list of ideal mental
health: Positive attitude towards
self, self-actualisation, resistance
to stress, autonomy, accurate
perception of reality, and,
mastery of the environment
Phobias
Phobias are
anxiety disorders
characterised by
extreme fear and
anxiety, triggered
by an object,
place or situation
Characterisitcs of Phobias
Behavioural
Endurance
Panic
Avoidance
Emotional
Unreasonable response
Persistant, excessive fear/anxiety
Cognitive
Distorted perceptions
Recognition of
exaggerated
anxiety
Two Process Model
Classical conditioning suggests
phobias are learnt through
association
Classical conditioning: fear of dogs
UCS (biting) --------------> UCR (Fear)
UCS(Biting)+NS (dog)------> UCR (Fear)
CS(Dog) --------->CR(Fear)
Operant Conditioning is
suggested to maintain phobias
Person is afraid of spiders, so runs away. Escape and
reduction of fear acts as negative reinforcer, so
likelihood increased that they will continue to avoid
spiders. When an individual avoids an unpleasent
situation the behaviour results in a positive
consequence, so the behaviour is likely to be
repeated
Strength of CC: Little
Albert Study
Weakness of CC:
Not all phobias
develop as result
of CC
Eval Point : Di Gallo (1996)
Treating Phobias
Systematic Desensitisation
Strength: Works fast,
requires little effort,
cheap (can be self
administered), accessible
to all
Weakness: Ethical issues,
right to withdraw. If the
patient wishes to withdraw
the therapy will be
ineffective
-Hierarchy of increasingly fearful situations
- Deep muscle relaxation techniques taught
- move through steps when comfortable
- Length of therapy depends on clients
Flooding
Strength :
Wolpe
treated girls
phobia of
cars, proved
it works
Weakness:
Not
suitable
for
patients in
bad health
Patient is
exposed to
phobic
stimulus
suddenly with
no build up.
Can be done in
vivo or virtual
reality
Sessions last 2-3
hours, but only
one session might
be needed
Depression
Depression
is an
affective
mood
disorder
involving
lengthy
disturbances
of emotions
Characteristics of depression
Behavioural
Aggression and Self harm
Disruption to
sleep and
eating
Emotional
Anger
Lowered Mood
Cognitive
Poor concentration
Attending to and dwelling on the negative
Explanations
Beck's Negative Triad
An individual's behaviour is influenced by their
schemas --------> Negative cognitive biases ------>
Depression
A depressed
person's
negative
schemas,
together with
their cognitive
biases,
maintain the
negative triad.
Ellis' ABC model
Depression is the result of irrational thinking
Ellis believed
that people who
are depressed
blame external
events for their
unhappiness,
whereas he
suggested that
it is their
interpretation
of these events
that is to blame
To Explain his process Ellis
developed the ABC model-
A: Activating event B: Beliefs
C:Consequences
These result in depression
Evaluation of explanation
of depression
Cognitive
explanations
are not the
only way to
explain
depression
Biological
approach
suggests
neurotransmitters
The idea that depression
linked to irrational
thinking+negative
schemas+negative triad
supported by research
Bourey et al
Treatment: Cognitive Behavioural Therapies (CBT)
CBT: Began in
1960's, most
commonly used
psychological
treatment for
depression
Evaluation
OCD: Obsessive
Compulsive
Disorder
Anxiety Disorder where
sufferers experience
persistant and intrusive
thoughts occurring as
obsessions, compulsions or
both
Obsessions are generally what people are
thinking and are inappropriate ideas such
as being convinced there are germs
everywhere, this leads to extreme anxiety
Compulsions are
uncontrollable urges to
repetitively perform
tasks and behaviours
such as washing hands
to get rid of germs
Obsessions
lead to
Compulsions
Affects about 2 -
2.5% of the
population, it
effects both
genders equally
A person
must feel
driven to
perform
these
compulsions
on most days
for a period
of two weeks
or more
before they
are
diagnosed
Behavioural Characteristics: -Excessive
repetitive behaviours to reduce anxiety,
-counting, tapping or repeating certain
words to reduce anxiety, -Spending a lot of
time washing, cleaning or checking,
-Demanding Reassurances, -Excessive
Double Checking, -Repeatedly checking in on
family and friends, -Spending lots of time
making sure 'things are just so'
Emotional Characteristics: -distress and anxiety about being
prevented from performing rituals, -Overwhelming fear of being
contaminated or fear of causing harm to themselves or others,
-Intense distress when objects are not orderly or facing the right way,
-Doubts about having checked/performed compulsions, -depression -
low mood and lack of enjoyment, -irrational guilt and disgust
Cognitive Characteristics: -Obsessive, irrational and inappropriate
thoughts/images, -Catastrophic thinking (if the smallest thing isn't
done correctly it is a disaster), -Performing mental acts such as
praying or counting, -Tendency to overestimate the likelihood of
danger, -Hypervigilant - maintain constant alertness and attention focus on hazards
OCD cycle
Genetic explanation suggests a
person will develop OCD based on
their genes. This also explains why
patients often have family
members with OCD. OCD is thought
to be polygenic.
Candidate genes are ones which,
through research, have been
implicated in the development in
OCD. These genes tend to be
involved in regulating serotonin, a
neurotransmitter which facilitates
message transfer across synapses
However it is recognised that not everyone in a
given family gets OCD so there must be additional
factors. The diathesis - stress model suggests that
people gain a vulnerability towards OCD through
genes but an environmental stressor is also
required. This could be a stressful event for example
a bereavement.
Neural explanations of OCD focus on the role of neurotransmitters and the structure of
the brain. For example, some cases of OCD may result from low levels of seratonin in the
brain which affects the transmission of mood - related information. Finally research has
also suggested that OCD may result from impairment of the frontal lobes which control
our decision making.