protest groups worked to overturn segregation, enfranchise black citizens and confront racism.
Non-violent resistance, 1945-55
1945-55 African Americans
developed the tactics of direct action
that would be so successful in late
1950s and early 1960s
1945-55, NAACP organised series of protests in
Louisiana e.g. in 1947 NAACP and supporters
picketed New Orleans' 4 biggest department stores
for refusing to allow back customers to try on hats.
1951, NAACP used same tactic in town
Alexandra in protest at the fact that the local
black school would close during cotton
harvest so that the black children could
work in the fields.
1953, NAACP organised a boycott of a newly built
school in Lafayette, protesting that its facilities were
obviously inferior to those enjoyed at the local white
school.
The NAACP was not the only group involved in direct action, in the 40s
and 50s other groups were also active: United Defence League (UDL),
Committee on Negro Organization (CNO), Congress of Industrial
Organizations (CIO) and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE).
June 1953, UDL organised a week-long
bus boycott in Louisiana's capital Baton
Rouge. Boycott accompanied by
'Operation Free Lift', a car pooling
scheme which transported African
Americans around the city in over 100
private cars.
1950-1957, CNO organised a voter
registration campaign in the southern
state of Arkansas.
CORE's Journey of Reconciliation 1947: Morgan V. Virginia ruled segregated
interstate transport illegal, however de jure change did not lead to de facto. 1947, team
of 16 CORE (8 white 8 black) activists planned to travel by bus from northern states to
the southern states. Objective to drew public attention to fact many bus companies
ignoring case ruling. Started 9 April 1947 and lasted for two weeks. Black sat in white
areas, white sat in black. Campaign proved bus companies in south were ignoring
ruling. Resulted in arrests of 12 CORE members. Failed to force south (e.g. North
Carolina) to desegregate.
How successful was direct action between
1945-55?
CNO's Arkansas-based voter registration
campaign, increased proportion of black voters
from 1.5% in 1940 to 17.3% in 1947
NAACP's lynching investigation squad set up in 1946, special unit
of lawyers and investigators who would visit lynching scenes,
collect evidence and mount court cases to bring perpetrators to
justice. Reason why lynching was on the decline by 1955.
CORE's journey of reconciliation failed to force bus
companies to desegregate.
UDL's bus boycott failed as Baton Rouge's buses remained
segregated and was too short to attract any media attention or to hurt bus companies finances.
AO2: Failures had positive consequences, later campaigns
would learn from UDL's experience and organise more
effectively. Boycott did involve the black community of an
entire city in protest, increasing confidence of blacks and
showed possible to stand against segregation.
The NAACP and legal change
Annotations:
Best known for campaigning court cases, however participated in non-violent direct action and created organisations such as Louisiana Progressive Voters League (subsection of NAACP)
Decade after WW2 has been
described as the 'Golden years of the
NAACP'
Annotations:
Operated a three-fold strategy to challenge segregation in South:
1) Took 'Jim Crow' laws to court by appealing to 14th and 15th Amendment
2) Put pressure on politicians in Washington
3) Organised popular resistance to racism in the South
Founded 1909 and headed by W.E.B. DuBois.
NAACP provided funds and experienced lawyers
(Thurgood Marshall) in order to support the court
cases of individual black men and women who
were prepared to take authorities to court.
Annotations:
Between 1939-42 membership increased from 50,000 to 450,000
Take cases to supreme court when the
government has acted in a way that infringes
individuals constitutional rights
Smith V. Allwright 1944-1950: concerned the voting rights of black people in Texas.
Black people excluded from primary elections. Significant as Texas was a Democratic
stronghold so whoever won the Democratic primary would win the Congressional
election. 1944 Lonnie E. Smith challenged this and went to Supreme Court with NAACP
backing. Case ruled Texan white primary was illegal because all citizens had right to
vote according to 15th Amendment. The case outlawed all-white primaries throughout
America.
Morgan V. Virginia 1946: challenged segregation on interstate bus services. 1944
Irene Morgan was fined $100 for refusing to give up her seat to a white man. Morgan
argued segregation on interstate transport violated her constitutional rights. Took her
case to Supreme Court, with back of NAACP chief lawyer Thurgood Marshall. 1946
Supreme Court ruled segregation on interstate buses was illegal.