Textbook notes

Why is Politics Important? Ancient Greek philosophers viewed it as the “master science”. Laws and policies of government can affect all aspects of our lives and society. Opportunity for higher-level education is affected by the funding of educational institutions, the availability of loans and grants to students and the tuition fees that students must pay (directly or indirectly set by government). If you are disabled or unemployed, your ability to live a decent life relies on the government. Political decisions affect the environment, freedoms and whether the country will send troops to fight in other parts of the world.   Basic Concepts No universally accepted definitions for many concepts used in analyzing politics. Different perspective equals different definitions. No single generally accepted definition for the concepts of politics, power and the common good. Still, clear definitions of basic concepts are essential to analyzing, understanding and discussing politics in a meaningful way.   POLITICS Feature of all organized human activity (Leftwich, 1983). Focuses primarily on the making of decisions that relate to the governing of a political community, although some believe politics can include all relationships that involve power. “Authoritative allocation of values for a society” (David Easton, 1953, p.129) Easton's view of politics (the one stated above) is used by many political scientists. “Allocation of values” refers to how limited resources of a society are distributed. “Concerns all those varieties of activity that influence significantly the kind of authoritative policy adopted for a society and the way it is put into practice” (Easton, 1953, p.128). Governments also take actions that are not considered “binding on the members of the political community”, like persuading us to adopt healthier lifestyles. Politics: “Activity related to influencing, making or implementing collective decisions for a political community.” Power is important in affecting political decisions. Power: “The ability to achieve an objective by influencing the behaviour of others, particularly to get them to do what they would not have otherwise done.” Power is a relationship among different individuals and groups, not easily quantifiable and changes depending on the objective and circumstances. Different ways to exert political power: Coercion: Using fear/threats of harmful consequences to achieve an outcome (e.g.: Hitler threatening to invade Czechoslovakia). Inducements: Achieving an outcome by offering a reward/bribe (e.g.: An employer offering a raise to an employee who supports a certain candidate). Persuasion: Trying to make people think/act in certain ways (can be used with truthful facts or through manipulation). Leadership (e.g.: A country that is good at creating environmentally-friendly energy might be able to convince others to do the same). Politics often involves considerable bargaining/negotiating among different political actors. If the powerful are able to prevent important issues from being raised, then power has been exercised through “non-decisions” (Bachrach & Baratz, 1962). Political Agenda: “The issues that are considered important and given priority in political deliberations.” If dominant ideas work against the interests of the weaker groups in society, resulting in weaker groups acting against their “own true interests”, then power has been exercised in an indirect manner (Lukes, 1974). The third face of power moves us away from power being defined solely as a “relationship”, instead it assumes that decisions will reflect the interests of the dominant groups. Determining what is in the “true interest” of an individual or group is contentious, because the third face assumes that their preferences are not necessarily the same as what is good for them.   The Distribution of Power In any society, the resources that give individuals/groups the potential to exert political power are unequally distributed (e.g.: Wealth, control of important aspects of the economy, social status and prestige, etc.) Political power of different individuals and groups is not only a product of their skill in mobilizing resources, however (e.g.: US senators have repealed propositions of gun control laws despite citizens supporting these laws).   The Positive and Negative Sides of Power Power is often viewed negatively because of its association with efforts to dominate/exploit others. There are tendencies for those with political power to use it for their own benefit rather than for the good of the political community. Those in powerful positions may become arrogant/unresponsive to the needs and desires of the population. “Power has a way of undermining judgment, of planting delusions or grandeur in the minds of otherwise sensible people and otherwise sensible nations.” (William Fulbright, Lobe, 2002, p.3) Power is often referred to as one or multiple people having power over others, but we can think of it as the power to achieve worthwhile collective goals. Power is often necessary to induce people to cooperate aDend achieve objectives that benefit themselves and the political community as a whole (e.g.: developing the economy). The Free Rider Problem: “A problem with voluntary collective action that results because an individual can enjoy the benefits of group action without contributing.”   AUTHORITY AND LEGITIMACY Authority: “The right to exercise power that is accepted by those being governed as legitimate.” Those with political authority claim that they have been “authorized” to govern. Legitimacy: “Acceptance by the members of a political community that those in positions of authority have the right to govern.”   Establishing and Maintaining Legitimacy Three basic types of authority which could try to establish its legitimacy in its own way: Charismatic Authority: “Authority based on the perception that a leader has extraordinary/supernatural qualities.” (e.g.: Mao Zedong) Traditional Authority: “Authority based on customs that establish the right of certain persons to rule.” (e.g.: Japanese emperors) Legal-Rational Authority: “The right to rule based on legal rules and procedures rather than on the personal qualities/characteristics of the rulers.” (e.g.: Justin Trudeau) Free, fair elections involving all adult citizens to vote is the most effective way to establish the legitimacy of government, but a “legitimacy crisis” can still occur (e.g.: Government persistently ineffective at dealing with problems, citizens will question the legitimacy of the system). System of governing imposed on a population without consent might also be viewed as illegitimate, regardless of if it is democratic.   The Significance of Legitimate Authority All governments rely on coercion and other forms of power to some extent, but generally most people feel an obligation to obey a legitimate government. Legitimate authority is a powerful resource.   THE COMMON GOOD Philosophers often view politics as different from other activities because it should be concerned with the common good. Common Good: “What is good for the entire political community”. In practice, determining and achieving the common good can be contentious as members of a political community have different interests and values. Individualist Perspective: “A perspective that views human beings as acting primarily in accordance with their own interests.” Critics of the individualist perspective, however, argue that humans are social beings who flourish through harmonious interaction with others. The communities to which we belong help to shape our identity. “Individuals engage in political activity not only to advance their own interests, but also to pursue the values they think should guide the actions of government” (Lewin, 1991). The values of a particular religion in many countries no longer provide a widely accepted guide as to what constitutes a good life and a good society. Shared values (freedom, equality, order, etc.) may be thought of in different ways and given different priorities. In countries where there are sharp divisions based on religion, economic inequality, etc., the sense of being members of a shared community and a willingness to be concerned about others may be weak or non-existent, meaning that the notion of the common good may not be very meaningful.   Achieving the Common Good? The ancient Greek philosopher Plato sketched an ideal of how the common good might be achieved; political authority placed in the hands of a wise, philosopher-king who was thoroughly educated in the art of governing, this leader would be prevented from having a family/owning property to ensure that he would not pursue the particular interests of his family, estate, etc. Democracy is often seen as the form of government most likely to actually pursue the common good, but there is often an expectation that decisions in such government will tend to reflect the opinions of the majority. This, however, does not ensure that the common good will be achieved. The majority isn't always oriented toward the common good, and has often supported policies that oppress minorities. Pluralist System: “A political system in which a large number of groups representing a wide variety of interests are able to influence the decisions of government. Government tries to satisfy as many groups as possible and no group has a dominant influence on government.” If each group pursued its own interest, the good of the entire community may be ignored. The claim to be acting for the common good can be deceptive, such as when ruthless leaders justify brutal actions in the name of the long-term good. Appeals to the common good are sometimes made to justify repressive government actions in order to fight terrorism, subversion and crime.   A Question of Communities and the Future Common good of the country may not be the same as the common good of other political communities to which we belong (e.g.: provincial government). The processes of globalization are creating increased interaction/interdependence among the people of the world, but for most of us, our sense of being part of a global political community is much weaker than being Canadian. Common good is often thought of in terms of the quality of life and the community in the present.   What is Political Science? Political Science: “The systematic study of politics.” Includes a diverse set of ways to approach the study of politics. Empirical Analysis: “Analysis that involves explaining various aspects of politics, particularly by using careful observation and comparison to develop generalizations and testable theories.” Normative Analysis: “Analysis that includes examining ideas about how the community should be governed and what values should be pursued through politics.” Distinction between these two types of analysis isn't always clear-cut; analysts are part of the world they study, and their values and ideals will affect their research. Policy Analysis: “Analysis that involves evaluating existing policies and assessing possible alternatives to deal with particular problems.” Policy analysts have to consider what is feasible rather than ideal, which calls for an understanding of political realities.   WHY STUDY POLITICS? Understanding politics is essential in order to take effective action to achieve our goals and ideals. Understanding politics helps us to think about the issues that arise in politics, how to achieve what is best for yourself and your community and how to recognize some of the obstacles that hinder the achievement of your goals.   Career Ties One-fifth of Canadians work for the government or its agencies. Knowledge of government policies/regulations and the operations of the political system are useful in almost every field of endeavour. A degree in political science provides a good background to a wide variety of career choices. Helpful in developing intellectual skills, which are useful in one's personal development and eventual career. Skills Include: Ability to communicate effectively. Ability to read carefully. Ability to research thoroughly. Ability to think critically. Contains a great diversity of perspectives and approaches, which helps to make it interesting, challenging and useful to the development of general intellectual skills.