Psychology G544 Notes

Physiological ApproachAssumption that behaviour can be explained by physiological changes - brain, hormones Focuses on relationship between our biological make-up and our behaviour and experiencesStrength- Useful as it has practical applications as it may be used to diagnose and develop treatments for illnesses~e.g. D&K importance of sleep in relation to mental health- Highly scientific methods used~e.g. Maguire used MRI scanner which is an objective and precise manner of measuring brain structure ~ Raine uses PET scan + Also used lab experiment-high control over c variables Weakness- Low ecological validity - not realistic environment or task~e.g. Sperry the p's carried out usual tasks not typical of everyday behaviour ~D&K sleeping in a lab, not usual conditions for the p's so may affected their sleeping behaviour - Can be costly & time consuming due to sophisticated equipment & lengthy procedure- this often leads to small samples~e.g. D&K only studied 5 p's in-depth StudiesDement & Kleitman - AS - Physiological - eye movement during sleepSperry - AS - Physiological - split brain, left & right hemispheres Maguire - AS - Physiological - Hippocampus & memoryRaine- A2 - Upbringing, biology - Pet Scan - amygdalaGeer & Maisel - A2 - Health, measuring stress - galvanic skin response

Cognitive ApproachAssumption that out brain is like a computer, senses are the input the brain then processes them and the outcome is the behaviour we displaySuggests that abnormal behaviour is due to faulty processing in the brainStrength- Useful as it has practical applications to the real world~L&P reliability of eye-witness testimony & effect of leading questions~e.g. BC helps us understand behaviour of people with autism better - Highly scientific as it uses lab experiment, high control so can establish cause & effect~e.g. L&P had control over p's age, videos shown questions & locationWeakness- Low ecological validity as its carried out in a lab & task is unrealistic~e.g. L&P watch videos of car crash ~e.g. BC eyes task-view pictures of eyes- Reductionist as it ignores social influences on individuals behaviour- Low validity on measuring cognitive process-don't know what they are thinking we have to infer-often from self-reports & observations~e.g. BC we can only infer that adults with autism have Theory of Mind difficulties from eyes taskStudies Loftus & Palmer - AS - leading questions on eye-witness testimonyBaron-Cohen - AS - Theory of Mind in autistic personBeck et al - A2 - Dys behav explanation - DepressionBeck et al - A2 - Dys behav treatments - Therapy and drugsMeichenbaum - A2 - Managing stress - Stress inoculation therapy

Social ApproachAssumption that our behaviour is influences by the real of imaginary presence of others We can only understand people in the context of their interactions. Social context-friends, family, groups, institutions, wider societyStrength- Useful for contribution to society in understanding social behaviour-can explain & offer solutions to problems in real world~e.g. M shows situational factors can lead to obedience ~e.g.R&H show break down of groups lead to conditions for tyranny- High ecological validity due to attempt to use real life situations so they use field experiment~e.g. P uses New York train to carry out field experiment-P's unaware so avoids demand characteristics Weakness- Unethical as it's difficult to study social behaviour without negatively affecting participants~e.g. P- consent as p's were unaware of study ~e.g. M-deception, informed consent, harm-caused p's psychological harm- Ethnocentric & Androcentric p's were all from same country (culture) ~e.g. M study p's were all male from US(western) & volunteer sample-may have similar personalities ~e.g. R&H all p's were male and from UK (western)StudiesPiliavin - social influence on helping behaviour Reicher & Halslam - behaviour of groups with unequal powerMilgram - effect of authority figure on obedience levels Waxler-Morrison - effect of social group on survival rate of cancerWikstrom & Tajfel - crime- poverty & disadvantaged neighbourhoods

Individual DifferencesAssumption that there are differences between the people of any group, in terms of their personality, response to situations, behaviours etc.Mainly concerned with the differences between people particularly in terms of personality and abnormalitiesStrength- Useful as it has practical applications-can help improve the experience of people with mental health problems~e.g. R study led to changes in way people with mental health issues are diagnosed & treated~e.g. G study helped show that cognitive therapy may help addicted gamblers - Development and use of psychometric tests to measure differences in individuals such as personality & IQ- obtain quantitative data-analyse~e.g. T&C used various psychometric tests Weakness- Unethical as labelling a person as abnormal may have a negative effect on an individual-negative labels can lead to self fulfilling prophecy because of expectations~e.g. Rosenhan was critical of reliability of labels and negative effects- Tends to ignore external factors i.e. situation a person is in~e.g. T&C-Eve many have had difficulties due to expectation of being a wife in US in the 1950'sStudiesThigpen & Cleckly - Eve- Multiple personality disorderGriffths - Cognitive bias in gambling behaviourRosenhan - If psychiatrists can differentiate sane & insane individuals Daly & Wilson - Turning to crime-biology - diff in male & female crime rates

Developmental ApproachAssumption that there are clearly identifiable systematic changes that occur in an individuals behaviour from conception to deathCognitive, emotional & behavioural development in an ongoing process. Events that happen early in life can have a long-term effect on development.Strength- Useful as it has led to development of therapies to enable individuals to cope with early traumatic experiences~e.g. F looked at how Little Hans phobia of horses developed - Longitudinal studies tend to be used, this means they can study the changes in behaviour over time & gain lots of rich data~e.g. F studied Little Hans for 2 years-great detail on his emotional developmentWeakness- Difficult to generalise as findings are often from a very small sample~e.g. F study sample was 1 boy (Little Hans)~e.g. S&B used children from 1 school in Devon-therefore ignores cultural differences- Validity of measuring children behaviours & thoughts~e.g. F study is really F's interpretations of LH's dads interpretation of his son's behaviourStudiesBandura - children imitate aggressive behaviour displayed by role modelFreud - treatment of Little Hans phobia of horses (Oedipus complex) Samuel & Bryant - challenge Piaget's theory of cognitive development

Approaches

Perspectives

Psychodynamic Perspective All human behaviour is driven by unconscious motives we have no awareness of - unconscious mindE.g. Little Hans phobia of horses-displaced fear of his father Emphasis on role of unconscious mind & influence of childhood eventsMain idea of Freud's is that there are 3 parts to the mindThe Id - pleasure principle - pleasure seeking & doesn't care about realityThe Ego - reality principle - maintain balance between id & super egoThe Superego - morality principle - want is morally & ethically rightDefence Mechanisms Used by the ego to protect itself from demands of ID & SUPEREGOSublimation - channel anxious behaviour into something socially ok Repression - push anxious thoughts deep into unconscious mindDenial - unconscious refusal to accept realityProjection - project anxious thoughts onto someone else (blame others)Reaction Formation - doing opposite to what you believeRegression - when you go back to earlier stage of development Displacement - takeout anxious thoughts onto something/someone elseStudiesFreudThigpen & Cleckley

Behaviourist PerspectiveAll behaviour is learned & shaped by the environment & experiences. Focuses on observable behaviour which can be objectively measuredClassical Conditioning (Pavlov)Learning through association e.g. learn a phobia from association with a bad experience e.g. Little Albert Study associated loud bang with ratOperant Conditioning (Skinner)Consequences of behaviours shape/reinforce behaviour. Positive reinforcement = behaviour more likely to be repeated Negative reinforcement(punishment avoided) = behaviour more likely to be repeated Punishment = behaviour less likely to be repeated Social Learning TheoryAlso learn through observing other people behaviourStudiesBanduraPavlov + Skinner (Not in core studies)

Methods