Monarchy and Government Tudors pre Elizabeth AS

Monarchy and Government

Monarchy and Government Personal and political qualities of the Tudor monarchs Henry VIII 1509 – 47 · Came to the throne at the age of 17 · He was not expected to become king as his elder brother, Arthur, was expected to rise to the throne – Arthur died in 1502 · He was intelligent o Spoke four or five languages o Sing and Dance o Wrote poems and songs · Henry was forceful and sometimes cruel as king · He disliked writing state papers · Influenced by the idea of ‘honour’ o Defending England’s rights abroad · Regaining territory lost in France · Inspired by Henry V Edward VI 1547 – 53 · Came to the throne at the age of 9 · Educated by the best humanist figures in the country · Able child – at the age of 7 he was learning to read Latin · 1550 – could speak 3 languages · Expected to lead an army · Learning to become increasingly involved in government · Growing Protestant faith Mary I 1553 · Became queen at the age of 37 · Intelligent · Well educated · Teenage and adult years were overshadowed by Henry attempting to annul his marriage to her mother · During Edward’s reign, she was under constant pressure to change her beliefs but refused · She was extremely stubborn o Trying to convert England back to Catholicism o Her belief that her marriage to Philip II was the best way to achieve her religious aims · Her health affected her ability to rule effectively o Suffered from anxiety and depression o Her desperation to bear a son and heir led to phantom pregnancies

Marriages and Relationships What problems did Henry VIII face in securing the Tudor succession? · Needed a surviving son · As there was a lot of diseases that affected the young, it was advised that a King would have more than one surviving son · Failure to produce a son would put the Tudor dynasty in danger and cause speculation o Could lead to plots o ‘White Rose Party’ – rival claimants – often harshly dealt with · Although Catherine was older than Henry when they got married, there was no reason to believe that she would not be able to provide an heir · Between 1510 and 1518 she suffered a series of miscarriages and infant deaths · In an age where a man had to rule the lack of a male heir was disastrous for Henry · The lack of an heir was part of the reason Henry later divorced Catherine Henry’s search for a son and heir · Married Anne in 1533 · She was already pregnant by him o A daughter – Elizabeth · Henry argued that his marriage to Catherine had never been legal and thus Mary was illegitimate · The Act of Succession (1534) – confirmed Elizabeth as the new heir to the throne · Anne’s subsequent miscarriages, including that of a deformed male foetus in Jan 1536, helped to bring about her downfall · Henry wanted to wipe the slate clean by annulling his marriage to Anne Boleyn · The second Act of Succession (1536) – Anne Boleyn was executed on the charge of adultery and Henry then married Jane Seymour · Jane gave birth to Edward in 1537 but then died shortly after · Despite 3 more marriages after Jane, Henry did not have any more children · Henry’s reign was rocked by a serious rebellion in 1536 · In the aftermath, the remaining Yorkist’s were executed or forced to flee the country · Third Act of Succession (1544) – restored both Mary and Elizabeth as heirs to the throne after Edward, although he never reversed their illegitimacy The role of faction at the Tudor court · Factions were used in attempts to gain personal access to the king/queen · In the later part of Henry’s reign, factions formed along religious lines · Conservative – favoured a return to traditional, Catholic forms of worship · Reformer – favoured more reform to make the English clergy more Protestant · These factions competed to influence Henry by placing their supporters in positions where they could influence him, often in the Privy council · Henry balanced them by placing off against each other

Henry VIII’s will, 1547 · It became clear Henry would die before Edward was older enough to take the throne himself · Henry’s ill health meant he was not able to control the rival factions in the government o This led to political instability · The balance of power had to go in the way of the Earl of Hertford · Hertford ensured that men loyal to him were in important positions in the Privy Chamber – where they had direct access to the dry stamp · When Henry was dying, a series of political manoeuvrings took place through which Hertford was able to enhance his control over the future boy king o Regency council gave ‘full power and authority’ o ‘unfulfilled gifts’ clause added to the will o Henry’s death was kept secret for 3 days – negotiations took place, including the custody and control of Edward o Hertford made Edward’s protector Edward VI and the question of the succession, 1553 · Historians used to believe Edward was a sickly child whose early death was no surprise · Edward, in fact, was in generally good health · Took part in sports and won competitions etc. · Early 1553 – Edward fell ill with a feverish cold that rapidly developed into incurable pulmonary tuberculosis · Edward had no male family members to take the throne · His decisions were being influenced by Dudley · Sir John Gates, who was previously loyal to Hertford, changed his loyalties to Northumberland, giving Northumberland access to the dry stamp. · By 1553 the country had undergone dramatic religious changes o Fully Protestant church · Edward knew that due to the 1534 act of succession, Mary had been bastardised · This explains why Edward chose to pass over Mary in 1552 · Despite Elizabeth being protestant, Edward did not leave her the throne either o Edward thought that she was not legitimate due to the 1536 act of succession o Suspect legitimacy could be manipulated by potential rivals to the throne Edward’s ‘device for the succession’ · Edward began to draw up a document in early 1553 · Written and altered by Edward himself – shows how as Edward’s illness progressed, Edward’s plans changed o Initially, Edward had planned to marry and have sons of his own · Edward assumed there would be enough time for either the Duchess of Suffolk or her eldest daughter Jane to have a son and heir. · He left the crown to ‘the Lady Fraunceses heir’s males’ or for lack of such issue to the Lady Jane’s male heirs · In May 1553 it became that Edward was dying · Edward altered the device so that it stated that Jane should inherit the throne should she not provide a male heir before his death

The Duke of Northumberland and the disputed succession · Debate over how much input Northumberland into the device · Northumberland was careful to control access to Edward through Privy Chamber · Northumberland’s power came from his relationship with Edward · He was responsible for overseeing the final stages of the Protestant Reformation · Unlikely to support the claim from Mary or Elizabeth · He could not control Elizabeth or Mary in the way he did Edward · Lady Jane Grey would be Northumberland’s daughter in law Why did Mary Tudor become queen in 1553? · Despite the fact, Edward her written out her succession Mary gained popular support in 1553 o Under the laws of the kingdom, she was next in line for the throne · Northumberland told Mary that he would support her, but spies in court informed her that he was lying · It did not look like Mary could claim the throne because Northumberland had control of London, the central offices of government and the navy · She gained support from nobility e.g. Earl of Sussex o All these men provided money and resources to the cause of getting Mary on the throne · Word spread of Mary’s defiance · Many originally followed orders and declared Jane but buckled and began to support Mary · On July 18 – arrest was issued for Northumberland What were 16th-century attitudes towards female rulers? · Women believed to be inferior to men · John Knox wrote that the ‘regiment’ of women was ‘monstrous’ o Women could not be trusted because it was Eve who was led to temptation in the Garden of Eden · In the Tudor period circumstances were different because there were no male heirs at the time · The king and queen were defined roles at the time o King – rules his country, dispense justice and defend the realm by leading troops into battle o Queen – wife, to intercede with king for peace and mercy, and to provide him with a son and heir · When Mary and Elizabeth went to the throne it was expected for them to get married so the king could take on the king’s responsibility How did Mary approach the issue of marriage? · Philip was in many ways an obvious choice · If Mary had married a member of the English court, this could cause jealousy and rivalry at court · Philip is equal in rank to Mary · Mary was half Spanish herself · Spain controlled the Netherlands, which was a vital partner in the English cloth trade · Philip was a devout Catholic

· People thought that because Philip was the king, that meant that the country was going be ruled by a foreigner · Mary drew up a marriage treaty (1554) that protected her power in England o Philip would have the title of king, but he would not rule. He would only be allowed to assist Mary o If Mary were to die first, Philip would not be able to rule as King of England on his own. Philip’s son by an earlier, Don Carlos, would also have no claim to the throne o Any children of the marriage would inherit the throne o Philip was not allowed to appoint foreigners to positions in the English government o England would not be drawn into wars between Spain and France · The fears about the marriage were some of the reasons that caused the Wyatt Rebellion Parliament The power of parliament · During the Tudor period, parliament became important through the additions of: o Grant taxation o Sole right to pass laws o When a monarch needed taxation to supplement their income (usually for war or another emergency) o Monarchs retained the right to veto any laws they did not like and to summon and dismiss parliament at will o Most monarchs would summon government periodically to get a feel for the people Parliament organisation · Two chambers · Unelected House of Lords · House of Commons – filled with elected MPs o Two MPs were elected to represent each county of England, and some boroughs (towns) also had the right to send MPs to parliament · To vote in a county they had to own a property that brought in an income of at least 40 shillings (£2) per year o Voting restricted to those wealthy enough to own property · Parliament tended to represent the interests of the gentry and nobility Henry VIII’s parliaments before 1529 · Henry VII’s parliament met 7 times in his 24-year reign · Parliament met 4 times 1509-1529 o Its role was mainly to grant taxation § As Henry’s foreign policy had become costly and ineffective · The burden of taxation increased and parliament became more reluctant to grant Henry large amounts of money · Wolsey was met with silence when he approached parliament to raise taxation · The parliament 1512-14 showed some anti-clerical feeling · 1512 – passed an Act to limit ‘benefit of clergy’

From ‘king and parliament’ to ‘king – in – parliament’ · The term ‘reformation parliament’ was not used until the 19th century The 1529-31 sessions · 1529 – the king was still searching for a way to achieve the annulment of his marriage · 3/26 statutes dealt with religious matters · Parliament met again for a second session in Jan 1531 o Henry was threatening to use the parliament as a method to put pressure on Pope Clement VII to act o He told the pope that he planned to refer his divorce case to parliament The 1532 session · Cromwell had been appointed to the king’s Council o Started using his power to enable Henry to get a divorce from Catherine · The Act of Conditional Restraint of Annates applied pressure on the Church by threatening to forbid newly appointed bishops from making customary payments to the pope o Act was made ‘conditional’ (delayed for a year) · Anti-clericalism in the commons was also manipulated by the production of a petition – the Commons’ Supplication – a list of complaints against the Church to which Convocation was forced to submit The 1533-34 sessions · Feb 1533 – parliament met with urgency o Henry had married Anne, who was already pregnant o Any annulment from Catherine could still be challenged in Rome o Henry needed to ensure Anne’s child would be legitimate · Cromwell drafted the Act in Restraint of Appeals o Cuts of any attempt by Catherine to appeal her case in Rome o Allowed Cranmer to declare Henry’s first marriage void under English law · 1534 – used to confirm and enhance the new Royal Supremacy and break with Rome · Act of Annates made permanent · Act of Succession o Confirmed Henry’s position as the head of the church · The treason act widened the definition of treason – not only through deeds but through words The use of parliament from 1536 to 1547 · After the break of Rome, Cromwell and Henry continued to use parliament · 1536 – act for the dissolution of the smaller monasteries · 1539 – act for the dissolution of the larger monasteries · Parliament was also used to dictate religion o Act of Ten Articles(1536) – promoted a more ‘reformed version of faith’ o Act of Six Articles(1539) – reflected Henry’s reversion to a more conservative doctrine · The second and third acts of succession (1539 and 1544) rewrote the succession twice more

The consequences of the Reformation parliament · Once parliament had been used to break from Rome monarchs were forced to return to it when religious and political needed to be altered · Idea that it was more powerful for a king acting in conjunction with parliament due to the change to ‘king-in-parliament’ · Reigns of Mary and Elizabeth reinforced the idea of Royal Supremacy · New powers meant that monarchs were forced to call parliament more frequently · Between 1526 and 1536 there were sessions nearly every year · More meetings meant MPs were more confident in expressing their views · New tactics had to be developed Parliament and freedom of speech · MPs feared that without the guarantee that they would be able to speak freely while debating, they could face arrest and imprisonment · Pre-Elizabeth – freedom of speech was usually respected by government · Parliament could not choose the topic for debate · Were occasions where the Tudors faced opposition from their parliaments · 1532 – opposition to the Annates bill forced Henry to come to parliament himself to intimidate commons with his presence Parliament under Edward and Mary · Edward – parliament used to continue and accelerate the Protestant reformation · Mary – reversed the religious changes seen under Edward and Henry · Historian (Sir John Neale) – used to be thought that Mary’s parliament saw a growth in an organised Protestant opposition. · Mary’s parliament was easy to manage · 1555 – serious opposition to two proposed bills o First bill proposed that payments to the Church known as ‘First Fruits and Tenths’ that had been seized by Henry should be returned to the church § Caused opposition because it was only Catherine’s supporters who supported the bill o Second bill known as ‘Exiles Bill’ proposed that the lands and property of men who had gone into exile and refused to return could be seized · If the monarchy had given up the funds they gain from the First Fruits and Tenths, then taxation may have been raised

Crown Servants · Enhancing the power of the monarch they are serving · Wolsey and Cromwell came from humble beginnings o Reliant on Henry to keep their power · Wolsey o Son of an Ipswich butcher o In 1509 he became an almoner (someone who distributed money to the poor) o He became a member of the king’s council in the same year o Pleased the king through the war effort against France 1512-14 o 1514 – Wolsey made archbishop of York o 1515 – Wolsey made cardinal and Lord Chancellor o 1518 – Wolsey made legate a latere o From 1525 his relationship with the king started to unravel § Unable to secure a divorce for Henry o 1529 – outlived his use to the king and charged with praemunire · Cromwell o Self-made man o Son of a cloth maker o Served as a soldier in the French army o Learned accountancy and law o 1516 – working for Wolsey o 1523 – became an MP o When Wolsey fell from power, Cromwell recovered quickly o 1531 – member of Henry’s Council o Strong religious convictions o Cromwell had enemies at court o Reliant on Henry’s support o The marriage to Anne of Cleves was a mistake – angered Henry · Henry’s relationship with his chief ministers was dictated by his personality and style of rule · Wolsey’s successes o Organisational abilities § Allowed Henry to afford foreign war and then play international peacemaker o New form of taxation – the subsidy § Allowed Henry to collect more taxation from his subjects. o Attempted legal, social and economic reform o Prosecuted in Star Chamber local officials who were accused of corruption § Used it at the court of Chancery to encourage ordinary men to seek justice for their grievances § 1517-18 launched a national enquiry to investigate illegal enclosure · Wolsey’s failures o Personality and ambition led to criticism o He held multiple positions in the church § Used the profits from these positions to live a grand lifestyle o Backlog in the Star Chamber o He used his position to prosecute personal feuds o Upset the landed gentry and nobility o Amicable grant · Wolsey and Henry VIII o As long as he fulfilled the king's wishes, he remained in power o Contemporary critics say that Wolsey only prosecuted the nobility because he resented them for the power that they had in their own right · Cromwell and parliament o By passing Acts of Parliament, the break from Rome was made legal under English law o Cromwell exploited the anti-clerical feeling in parliament o 1533- Act of restraint of appeals · Cromwell’s role in government and fall from power o The dissolution of the monasteries caused a massive rebellion o Fell from power because of the marriage to Anne of Cleves o He had been protecting protestants accused of heresy

Finance and Law What was the role of the Council? · Helped the monarch with the day-to-day running of the country · It became increasingly formal and ‘professional’ The role of the Council under Henry VIII · 40 members · Privy council · Without Cromwell’s planning · Originally was in response to the 1536 rebellion when Henry needed advice The role of the Council 1547-88 · Dominated by the king’s protectors · Became an essential part of government Changes to the Crown’s finances · Both Wolsey and Cromwell attempted to make crown finances more secure · Crown had two main sources of income o ‘ordinary revenue’ which came from the royal lands and the monarch’s status as a landlord o ‘extraordinary revenue’ which was usually taxation granted by parliament for the monarch’s special needs, usually the costs of war Changes to royal finance under Henry VIII · Henry’s war against France cost about £1 million · Introduction of the subsidy · Amicable grant – Henry claimed to know nothing about it · Four specialised financial courts to handle the increased flow of money to the crown Financial developments under Edward and Mary · Crown lands sold · Mary began the end of debasement of coinage Changes to the legal system by Wolsey and Cromwell · ‘Special’ courts of equity – no legal precedent or where circumstances surrounding the case made it difficult to get a fair hearing · More flexible than the common law courts · Wolsey grew a number of cases brought to the Star Chamber from 12 to 120 per year