Henry's main objectives in foreign policy

Security

Wants to pass on dynasty to son, Arthur
Dies in his bed
Has international network of agents: paranoia

Prosperity

Avaricious
Make England prosperous
Fulfil expectations of a feudal monarch; overlord
Securing vital foreign trade

Recognition

Dynastic recognition through heir and spare
Overcome reputation as a usurper
Construct marriage alliance to establish dynasty abroad

Strategy: to avoid war at all costs (too expensive, would threaten his security and independence)

Europe during the reign of Henry VII

France

Ruled by Charles VIII, of the house of Valois
Strongest power in Europe - monarch used that power to annexe other provinces (e.g. Brittany an, Navarre and Burgundy); brought France into conflict with many European countries
Auld Alliance with Scotland - negative cohesion against England

Spain

Ferdinand of Aragon m. Isabella of Castile 1469 - held both kingdoms from 1479

Holy Roman Empire

Conglomerate of states in central Europe (Austria, Germany, their principalities)
Ruled over by Maximilian

Italy

Centre of political power - made up of city states and papal states
Focus being on Italy gave Henry time to stay in periphery and calculate his tactics

Brittany

Small independent Duchy - France want to absorb into their kingdom
Duke Francis, the ruler of Britanny, aware of tensions; used Henry to gain English support against France

France and Brittany: The Breton Crisis, 1487 - 1492

Aims

France: Charles VII wants to marry Anne of Brittany (both in minority) to absorb the semi-independent duchy
Brittany: does not want to be absorbed by France
England: HVII wants to avoid war but may disaffect population by doing nothing; needs to appear strong
Holy Roman Empire: Maximilian, Holy Roman Emperor, opposes Charles as also wants to marry Anne
Spain: Ferdinand of Spain also intervenes to prevent France absorbing Brittany

May 1487: France sent troops into Brittany - poses question as to whether Britain should get involved

Pro-involvement

Owed France a debt of gratitude since 1485 aid in Battle of Bosworth
Fearful of antagonising powerful France
Not in financial position for war

Con-involvement

Potential increase in French power
Would leave France in control of southern shore
Owed Francis II debt of gratitude for his time in exile

Events

1488: Duke Francis dies and Charles VIII claims Anne as his feudal ward
1489: Medina del Campo signed with Spain as Henry VII seeks international assistance
- Trade clause: makes Spain preferential to English ships (Prosperity)
- Mutual support to defend their countries; assurance that neither king would make treaty with France without other's agreement (Security)
- Arranged marriage between Catherine of Aragon and Prince Arthur, m. 1501 (Recognition)
- Marriage dowry (Prosperity)
- Secures him with a strong ally in his weak early days (Spain trying to undermine France through Anglo-Spanish relations)
1489: Negotiates Treaty of Redon with Anne of Brittany, Ferdinand and Maximilian
- Agreements to building an anti-French alliance
- Brittany agreed to cover costs of 3,000-strong English army
- Perkin Warbeck threat eliminated as Brittany promise not to recognise pretenders
1491: France takes control of Brittany as Charles VIII m. Anne of Brittany; Henry reasserts ancient claim to France and besieges Boulogne
- Creating a facade: gesture of aggression with a lack of any long-term expectation of war
- Charles busy focusing on the Italian Wars: has little to gain from warring with England
- Appeases English nobility: plays well on domestic stage

1492: Treaty of Etaples negotiated between HVII and CVIII with following terms/effects
- French to pay annual pension of 50,000 crowns (number agreed on in 1495) (Prosperity)
- Charles VIII would not support any imposters (Security)
- Henry would withdraw his English troops from Brittany
- Slightly weakens Anglo-Spanish alliance

Scotland

Background

English always struggled to invade: only a population of 400,000 yet conquests impossible and invasions difficult
Scotland's Auld Alliance with the French always threatened to expose England on two flanks
Threat of border raids - HVII keen to recoup Berwick, taken by Scots, as was financially draining to maintain garrisons at border
Supported Yorkist rebels, e.g. Perkin Warbeck
Leniency towards Scotland would be seen as weak domestically amongst subjects
James III had been murdered by his nobles in 1488 due to disaffection and his pursuit of alliance with England; replaced by minor James IV who was dominated by Anti-English faction at court

1493 - 1509

1493: Earl of Angus, Anglophile regent, establishes control and signs a truce with England
1495: James IV comes of age - dedicated warrior who had particular enthusiasm for artillery
1495: Warbeck receives Scottish support, given pension and marriage to Lady Catherine Gordon arranged
1496: Warbeck's attempted invasion of England with JIV's support
1497: Henry's planned invasion - likely to have been a notable victory - derailed by Cornish tax rebellion; Warbeck leaves and peace is made between England and Scotland with Truce of Ayton
1501: Long-lasting strength symbolised with HVII's marriage agreement for Princess Margaret, b. 1489, to James IV
1502: Truce of Ayton matured into formal peace treaty
1503: James IV m. Princess Margaret and Anglo-Scottish relations were solidified

The Italian Wars (1494 - 1509)

Triangle of involvement

France (under Charles VIII), Spain (under Ferdinand) and the Holy Roman Empire (under Maximilian) all gravitated around Italian states
Charles VIII had invaded Milan, Florence, Rome 1494 successfully
Spain and H.R.E. were intervening
England was firmly uninvolved but could view from periphery any opportunities; HVII could bide time cautiously whilst eliminating domestic threats

Spain and Burgundy

Anti-French relationship

England ⬄ Spain: Medina del Campo treaty of 1489
Spain ⬄ Burgundy: marriage connections through Joanna of Castile (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella) m. Philip of Burgundy (Margaret's step-grandson)
Burgundy ⬄ England: trade links through wool exports to Antwerp

- A mutually reinforcing, symbiotic relationship based on mutual hatred of France

Trade Embargo, 1493 - 1496

HVII angered by Dowager Margaret's support of Perkin Warbeck
1493: Woollen exports to Antwerp banned, which prevents major trade from going to Burgundy and moves it to Calais instead (England-owned)
Shows Henry willing to sacrifice a degree of prosperity if it provides security
1496: Embargo ends with Intercursus Magnus ('Great Settlement') trade treaty which flushes Warbeck out and removes trade barriers
Relations better but not easy as Philip continued to harbour Yorkists

Significance of deaths 1502 - 1505

(1498: Death of Charles VIII of France; succeeded by Louis XII)
1502: Prince Arthur dies, leaving Catherine of Aragon widowed and the Anglo-Spanish alliance endangered: HVII proposes she marry Prince Henry (Henry VIII) but Ferdinand held out during improving Franco-Spanish relations; these were deteriorating in 1503 so he agreed - the marriage needed papal dispensation however
1503: Queen Elizabeth dies, leaving Henry a widower
1504: Isabella of Castile dies, leaving Anglo-Spanish alliance up in the air with the question of Castilian succession - HVII decides Ferdinand not as powerful as was when leader of united Spain; attempts to retract Henry's betrothal to Catherine; also chose to back Philip over Ferdinand in Castilian succession crisis
1505: Ferdinand signs Treaty of Blois with France's King Louis XII, m. his niece 1506 - securing strong Franco-Spanish relations (no longer needs England's support)

Castilian succession crisis, 1504

Isabella of Castile d. 1504, leaving question of who inherits her Castilian lands:
- Ferdinand of Aragon (her husband), or
- Joanna of Castile and Philip of Burgundy (her daughter and son-in-law)?
Henry has to pick a side to back:
- doesn't want to alienate Philip, who in potentially inheriting Spain and the H.R.E. (son of Maximilian) would be hugely powerful figure
- wants to protect English trade with Burgundy; wanted to gain custody of the pretender Edmund de la Pole from Maximilian
- wanted to arrange marriage for Henry to Philip's daughter Eleanor
Fate plays its part as Joanna and Philip shipwrecked and forced to seek shelter at his court: HVII capitalises on this luck to arrange secret Treaty of Windsor, 1506

Treaty of Windsor, 1506

Henry would recognise Joanna and Philip as the rulers of Castile
Following d. 1504 of Queen Elizabeth, Henry would marry Margaret of Savoy, Philip's sister (Recognition)
Trade agreement with more advantageous terms for England than Intercursus Magnus (1496), known as Intercursus Malus ('Evil Settlement') due to English favour (Prosperity)
Philip would hand over the pretender Edmund de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, with condition that HVII does not execute him (later, HVIII executes him) (Security)
Alienates Ferdinand, however, so no surprise following d. 1506 of Philip he turns away from Henry to further strengthen Franco-Spanish relations

Death of Philip of Burgundy, 1506

Death was sudden and a disaster for Henry: completely collapses the Treaty of Windsor and other European affairs
- Joanna allegedly went mad
- Ferdinand resumed control of Castile and was united King of Spain, married Louis XII's niece
- Maximilian assumed regency of Burgundy for young grandson Charles (Joanna and Philip's eldest son)
- Treaty of Windsor abandoned
- Margaret of Savoy refuses to marry Henry
- Henry left isolated in Europe; at least had Suffolk in his custody
HVII still had good standing with Maximilian from mutual fear of France
- abandoned Intercursus Malus and reverted to traditional English policy of safeguarding good relations with natural ally of Burgundy
- strong foresight demonstrated in discussions of Princess Mary marrying Charles
Relations uncertain through Burgundy-France-Spain's signing of Treaty of Cambrai, 1508: military alliance against Venice as part of Italian Wars but still left him vulnerable and without any strong allies in Europe 1508 - 1509

	Created by Katie Burke almost 10 years ago

Note on End of Yorkist Monarchy and the triumph of Henry Tudor, 1483 - 1487, created by Katie Burke on 09/01/2015.

End of Yorkist Monarchy and the triumph of Henry Tudor, 1483 - 1487