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CHAPTER ONE
METHODS FOR ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE
*Methods of acquiring knowledge - ways a person can know things - discover answers to questions.
*FIVE NONSCIENTIFIC APPROACHES: ~Method of TENACITY; ~Method of INTUITION; ~Method of AUTHORITY; ~RATIONAL Method; & ~Method of EMPIRICISM.
*Scientific methods tends - more complicated & more time consuming.
*Goal: obtain better quality answers - higher level of confidence in answers.
2) METHOD OF INTUITION
*Information is accepted as true because it "feels right."
*A person relies on hunches & "instinct" to answer questions. - Whenever we say we know something because we have a "gut feeling" - using method of intuition.
*Many questions, this method - quickest way to obtain answers.
*When we have NO information at all & CANNOT refer to supporting data or use rational justification - often resort to intuition.
*Many ethical decisions or moral questions - resolved by method of intuition.
*Intuition probably based on SUBTLE CUES - pick up from people around us.
*PREDICTIONS & DESCRIPTIONS given by psychics - thought to be intuitive.
*PROBLEM with method of intuition - has NO mechanism for separating ACCURATE from INACCURATE Knowledge.
4) RATIONAL METHOD
*Also known as RATIONALISM - Involves seeking answers by LOGICAL REASONING.
*Begin with set of known facts or assumptions - use logic to reach a conclusion or get an answer to a question.
*In logical reasoning - PREMISE STATEMENTS are - FACTS OR ASSUMPTIONS - known (assumed) to be true.
*AN ARGUMENT - set of premise statements - logically combined to yield a conclusion.
*If premise statements are true - logic is sound - the conclusion is guaranteed correct.
*Answers obtained by rational method - satisfy standards established by rules of logic BEFORE accepted as true.
*Rational method begins AFTER premise statements have been presented.
*DOES NOT involve making observations & gathering info - INSTEAD it is sitting alone, quietly, mentally manipulating premise statements - determine whether they combined to produce logical conclusion.
*LIMITATIONS are - logic is sound - still a chance - conclusion is not true. Unless both premise statements are true - conclusion NOT necessarily true - even in a valid logical argument. CRITICAL COMPONENT of scientific method.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD (pages 16 - 25)
*Scientific method - approach to acquiring knowledge - involves formulating specific questions & systemically finding answers.
*Scientific method - carefully developed system for ASKING & ANSWERING questions - Answers we discover are accurate as possible.
*Series of STEPS - define the scientific method.
STEP 2: FORM A TENTATIVE ANSWER or EXPLANATION - A HYPOTHESIS (pages 17-18)
*IDENTIFYING other factors or VARIABLES - associated with your observation. Can identify variables based on common sense or background research.
*VARIABLES: characteristics or conditions - change or have different values for different individuals.
*HYPOTHESIS: statement describes or explains a relationship between or among variables. Hypothesis is NOT a final answer - rather a proposal to be TESTED & EVALUATED.
STEP 4: EVALUATE the PREDICTION by MAKING SYSTEMATIC, PLANNED OBSERVATIONS (page20)
*Step is to EVALUATE prediction using DIRECT observation (empirical method).
*Actual RESEARCH or DATA COLLECTION PHASE of scientific method.
*GOAL - provide a fair & unbiased test or research hypothesis - observing if prediction is correct.
*Researcher careful to observe & record exactly what happens, free of any subjective interpretation or personal expectations.
OTHER ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Set of overriding principles governs scietific investigation. THREE important principles are: EMPIRICAL, PUBLIC & OBJECTIVE.
~SCIENCE IS EMPIRICAL (pages 21-23):
*SCIENCE IS EMPIRICAL - mean that answers are obtained by making observations. Preliminary answers or hypothesis may be obtained by other means - science requires empirical verification.
*It is NOT scientifically accepted until been empirically demonstrated.
*Scientific method involves - STRUCTURED & SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION
*Structure of observation is determined by - PROCEDURES & TECHNIQUES.
*Purpose of observations - provide empirical test of a hypothesis.
*Observations structured that results either provide clear support for hypothesis or clearly refute the hypothesis.
*Scientific method - observations are systematic - performed under specific set of conditions - accurately answer question addressing.
*Observations - indeed the entire study - structured to test a hypothesis about way the world works.
~SCIENCE IS OBJECTIVE (page 24)
*Scientific method is objective.
*Observations are structured - researcher's biases & beliefs DO NOT influence outcome of study.
*Researcher DOES NOT let personal feelings contaminate observations.
*Bias comes from belief in a particular theory.
*A researcher might find evidence to support his theory.
*Expectations can subtly influence the findings.
*One way to reduce influence of experimenter expectation - keep people who are making observations uniformed about details of study.
*Sometimes say - researcher is BLIND to details of study.
