ntensive observation of changes while they are occurring can reveal processes of change
Reveals individual change patterns over short periods in considerable detail

Reveals individual change over long periods

Quick and easy to administer (sometimes…)

helps establidh biological criteria for the DSM

deelopment occurs on a spectrum

Nature and Nurture

Children’s roles in their own development

Continuity/discontinuity in development

Mechanisms for Developmental Change

Socio-cultural context influence

Individual differences in child development

Research to improve children’s welfare

ensuring ethical treatment of the developing child

socialistion

positive reward stimulus

a good role model

all of the above

none of the below

Children can't progress to the next stage of development without first succeeding at the previous one

Qualitative changes in children’s thought.
Invariant sequence of patterns of thought.

the stages are defined not by task but by age

Does not reveal individual change patterns over long periods

Uninformative about stability in individual differences over time

Repeatedly testing people can threaten the external validity of study (generalising results to broader community

all of the above

Anxious-avoidant: despondant to mum leaving or returning

Anxious-avoidant: stress when mum leaves, ok when mum returns

Anxious-avoidant explores stranger , upset um leave, happy to engage whrn she returns

none of the above

Sensory abilities

Focus and reflexes

socio-emotional abilities

all of the above

Babies need to be breastfed to develop fully

Babies need touch to survive

Babies need a primary, loving caregiver to survive

B and C

Piaget's theory is correct: infants only learn after birth

Areas of cognition relevant in human evolution. Children are born with many specialized – not only general – learning abilities.

Areas of cognition relevant in human evolution. Children are born with many specialized learning abilities.

Areas of cognition relevant in human evolution. Children are born with a few essential general learning abilities that grow moer complex overtime.

showing they mentally represented the presence of the invisible box- can represent images without stimulus.

showing they mentally represented the presence of the invisible box- can represent images without stimulus, but only with conditioning

showing they mentally represented the presence of the invisible box- can represent images without stimulus, but only well developed babies will detect this

We can't conclude much from experiments

Piaget’s theory is vague about the cognitive processes that give rise to children’s thinking and about the mechanisms that produce cognitive growth hence information processing accounts of developmental change.

Infants and young children are more cognitively competent than Piaget recognised

Stage model depicts children’s thinking as more consistent than it is

all of the above

the understanding that an individual's belief or representation about the world may contrast with reality

to recognize that others can have beliefs about the world that are diverging.

A and B

A task that tests children's perception

There is no difference, one is a continuation of the other

First: require that another person’s mental state is read/understood
second: require understanding of what two people think sequentially

First: require understanding of what two people think sequentially
Second: require that another person’s mental state is read/understood

none of the above

Understanding the intentions of others is the basis of nearly all social interactions among people beyond preschool age

It an essential biological mechanism to social interaction

ToM is a complex cognitive function that requires the integration of information from many sources
Memory etc

all of the above

Deficits in the normal development of empathy
Systemizing refers to the drive to analyse, explore and construct systems and rules
Either intact or superior in autism- rely on it instead of innate sympathy
Theory may explain impairments in executive function and central coherence

abnormally low activity in brain regions involved in social cognition
abnormally high activity in regions involved in lower-level perceptual processing

all Children with ASD are delayed in developing a Theory of Mind

all of the above

Emma’s brother removes the apple
(child does not know where the apple is located

Emma’s brother removes the apple from the container and places it into the other container

neither of the above

It's a theory, not a behaviour

executive function

predictive judgement

We understand that our behaviour and that of others, is based on what we know, or believe, and what we want, or desire

all of the above and more complexities

C and D

There is no such theory

People derive theories about the mental states of others
-They make theories about how, why and what other people are thinking
-Mental states are attributed to other people and used to explain and predict behaviour

People construct a set of causal/explanatory laws that relate:
-External stimuli to internal states (perception to belief)
-Inner states to other inner states (desire to decision)
-Inner states to behaviour (decision to action)

Both B and C

Only psychical changes occur in this phase:
Muscle mass and strength gradually increase; baby fat decreases
Improvement of fine motor skills during middle childhood
Increased myelination of the central nervous system

Decline in Egocentricism- the realization that one’s own thoughts and feelings are not necessarily shared by others.
Decentration + Reversibility  Conservation!
Transformations- the ability to think and reason about change processes
Classification-the ability to classify objects as belonging to two or more categories at the same time.
Seriation- ordering based on parameters
Deductive reasoning- The ability to draw a logical inference from two or more pieces of information.

Children develop ToM and EF at increased rates

Intelligence as a Single Trait 

Few Basic Abilities

An Integrated Model of Intelligence- see diagram

There are 4 models, which also include: Intelligence as Several Basic Abilities: intelligence involves seven primary mental abilities.

Empiricists: people are born with a biology module

Nativists: people are born with a biology module
Empiricists: children’s biological understanding comes from personal observations and information they receive from other people and their culture

None of the above

Nativists: children’s biological understanding comes from personal observations and information they receive from other people and their culture

.  Timing  of  teratogen  and  structure  formation  
2.  Gene:cs  and  environment- not everyone will present symptoms  

3.  Same  defect  can  be  caused  by  different  teratogens  
4.  A  variety  of  defects  can  result  from  a  single   teratogen
  5.  The  longer  the  exposure  or  higher  the  dose,  the   greater  the  harm  

6.  Father  and  mother  exposure  effects  
7.  Long-­‐term  effects  oaen  depend  on  postnatal   environment  
8.  Sleeper  effects - symptoms can present later in life     

All of the above

Information Symbols : dual representation--understanding that information can be represented mentally in two ways at the same time, both as a real object and as a symbol for something other than itself eg scale model tasks. Children’s artistic ideas often outstrip their motor and planning capability

lassification:
dividing objects into category hierarchies (i.e., categories related by set-subset relations).
A key element in infants’ thinking is perceptual categorization, the grouping together of objects that have similar appearances. Based on parts of objects

Humaness: Imaginary friends included ordinary but invisible children as well as fanciful creatures. Preschoolers understand inheritance and grasp Essentialism, the view that living things have an essence inside them that makes them what they are

all of the above

5 years

4 years

7 years

12 years

Categorical Perception: music” of a language.Phonemic contrast ability appears to be innate, present at birth and independent of experience. One month old babies noticed all and only the changes an adult, listener would notic, as well as...

Prosody: sounds as belonging to discrete categories.Newborns can discriminate most pure tones, but best discriminations for human speech frequencies.

The ability to distinguish mothe's voice from others

Intonation change to reflect meanings

Phonological development: the acquisition of knowledge about phonemes, the elementary units of sound that distinguish meaning
Semantic development: learning the system for expressing

A and C

Syntactic development: learning the syntax or rules for combining words
Pragmatic development: acquiring knowledge of how language is used, which includes understanding a variety of conversational conventions

none of the above: they are mechanisms of speech perception

IQ

Longitudinal studies

Tests on different aspects

all of the above

none of the below

2 populations have a different genotype

when traits are governed by more than one gene

mutiple phenotypes are available

The source of genetic variation and the basis for natural selection

There are four main types of mutations
Base substitutions
Deletions of DNA
Insertions of DNA
Whole or partial chromosomal abnormalities

A and B

An unkown source of varience

individual children learn best through instruction that allows them to build on their strengths.

children play a role in development. Children’s IQ scores are positively correlated with the quality of their family environment as measured by the HOME

intelligence involves seven primary mental abilities.

none of the above

Cognitive intelligence

Interpersonal intelligence

Maternal/paternal instinct

None of the above

a CpG islet in a promoter region of a gene is methylated (has a CH3 group added), this interferes with the transcription of the gene

It changes the process of mitosis

Genes can not be properly expressed

A and C

How genes work together

Study of heritable esp via mitosis (but reversible) changes in gene expression. Epigenetic mechanisms regulate gene expression and are sensitive to external stimuli – bridging the gap between environmental and genetic factors.

How genes divide

How genes manifest in different populations

Chromosome formation

sex linked heritance

Changes that are not coded in the DNA sequence but by post-translational modifications in DNA, histone proteins and in microRNA

all of the above

important functional MHC markers are

the body's system need to work in union

a role for environmental factors contributing to disease development. Interplay between genetic and environmental factors may predispose and progress autoimmune diseases

none of the above

The winding of DNA has at least two functions: It is a very efficient way to switch on and off genes, depending on their geometric location, allowing access of transcriptional factors to promoter regions on the genes .

Any changes in the packing of the DNA can lead to changes in accessibility of different genes for transcription…and therefore gene function .

Histones dictate chromsome formation

A and B

Umbilical cord; amniotic sac surronded by the membrane that evetualy becomes the placenta

the inner cell mass forms the featus: The  top  layer  (ectoderm)   becomes  the  nervous  system,  the   nails,  teeth,  inner  ears,  lens  of  the   eyes  and  outer  layer  of  skin  
The  middle  layer  (mesoderm)   becomes  the  bones,  muscles,   circulatory  system,  inner  layers  of   skin  and  other  internal  organs
The  bottom  layer  (endoderm)   develops  into  the  diges:ve  tract,   lungs,  urinary  tract  and  glands
One  end  of  the  neural tube   will  swell  and  develop  into   the  brain,  and  the  rest  will   become  the  spinal  cord     

A and B

The featus has a developmental problem

zygote fertilisation

gamate production

gamate fertilisation

embryo development

The connection of egg and sperm

Another name for conception

reaches  the  uterine  wall,   these  tendrils  burrow  inward,  tapping  the   woman’s  blood  supply.¾  of  zygotes  fail  to  survive   this  ini:al  phase  of   development .

none of the above

Teratogens  are  external  environmental  agents  that  can   cause  damage  or  death  during  the  prenatal  period   •  Many  teratogens  only  cause  an  effect  if  the  fetus  is   exposed  to  it  in  a  par:cular  developmental  period,  called   a  sensi<ve  period

A form of regulatr gene

A sum of polygenetic changes

none of the above

influencing the formation and strengthening of synapses
– Producing myelin, that helps neurons conduct electrical messages along the neural network
– communicating among themselves in a network separate from the neural network

increasing thier rate of mitosis

interfering synatpic clefts

all of the above

Microglia – Serve as the immune system in the brain
• NG2+ cells
– Precursor cells to oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and neurons

Oligodendrocytes
– Wraps tips around the axons of neurons and extrudes myelin, creating sheaths that help speed conduction of electrical activity along the axon
– Myelin is the “white matter” of the brain

Astrocytes
– Most common of the glial cells
– Mop up excess neurotransmitters emitted from synapses
– Feed neurons by supplying nutrients and neurotransmitter precursors
– Control where and when neurons will make new synapses

all of the above

The brain starts to develop in weeks 2 and 3, with the folding and fusion of the ectoderm to form the neural tube
7weeks, signal is received so that two different cells are produced as they divide – another progenitor cell and a brain cell
The first brain cells are radial glia. They have their body in the ventricular zone and they extend fibres radially outwards. These radial glia have cup-like feet in the ventricular zone and the fibres extend to the pia mater, located at the outer surface of the future cerebral cortex

C-R cells establish themselves in a layer beneath the pia mater . A second set of neurons form a layer beneath the CR cells, and these neurons constitute the first of 6 layers of the cerebral cortex. The cells leave the ventricular zone, pass the first layers of neurons, and establish themselves just inside the layer of C-R cells. The radial glial cells guide the newborn neurons

formation of synapse connections between neurons
proceeds rapidly during the brain growth spurt. The net number of synapses begins to decrease at puberty. If neurons are not used, then they will die via the process known as apoptosis and their connections with other neurons will die – this process is called synaptic pruning. Neurons and their synapses that receive the most stimulation continue to function. Neurons that are not properly stimulated will die

The first process describes neurogensis, the second Synaptogenesis

None of the below

Probability of the expected and observed data being the same is higher than 0.05= chance. If lower than 0.05, there is a causal association

Probability of the expected and observed data being the same is lower than 0.05= chance. If higher than 0.05, there is a causal association

Probability of the expected and observed data being the same is higher than 0.05= chance. the two variables are casually associated

If the chi-square is large enough, then we can say that the two variables are associated

If the chi-square is small enough, then we can say that the two variables are associated

If the chi-square is similiar enough to the probability, then we can say that the two variables are associated

none of the above

chi-square statistic estimates the difference between the observed data and what would be expected if the two variables were dependant

chi-square statistic estimates the difference between the observed data and what would be expected if the two variables were independent

chi-square statistic estimates the difference between the observed data and what would be expected if the two variables were associated

chi-square statistic estimates the difference between the observed data and what would be expected if the two variables were not associated

We can allow a certain amount of error, and agree that a score greater than 1.96 (positive or negative) is a insignificant effect

We can allow a certain amount of deviation, and agree that a score greater than 1.96% (positive or negative) is a significant effect

We can allow a certain amount of error, and agree that a score greater than 1.96 (positive or negative) is a significant effect

none of the above