Cognitive Psych Lecture/Tute Qs

Cognition is the activity of acquiring, organising and using information to enable adaptive, goal-directed behavior

Cognition is conceived of as a flow of information through information processing devices that encode, store and retrieve symbolic representations of knowledge.

Includes mental processes such as learning, memory, attention, language, reasoning, decision making.

All answers are correct

Symbolic representations are used to compute the difference in angular rotation between two images.

An analogue representation can be rotated mentally as if manipulating an actual object in space.

Complex problem solving relies exclusively on analogue representations.

All answers are correct

Turing’s work inspired subsequent innovations in Artificial Intelligence (AI) – a research programme dedicated to developing intelligent machines, modelled on human cognitive processes. The approach to cognition that developed from this work in AI is referred to as Classical Cognition

Turing Test” The Turing Test equates cognition with disembodied linguistic output. For a machine to pass a strong version of the Turing test its programme would need to encode all of the knowledge a human has acquired over a lifetime and it would need to have a procedure for matching any text input with an appropriate response.

20th century mathematician, computer science innovator. Computing became a metaphor for cognitive processes.

All of these answers are correct

that it provides no account for how symbols are learned. We are not born knowing about all the different kinds of things that exist in the world and the relationships between them

Our conceptual knowledge must be “grounded” in our bodily interactions with the world and our perceptions – things that cause us to feel (sense and perceive)

There are only 3 types of mental representations

All the above

in a range of different formats, from analogue to symbolic representations

as a "language of thought" composed of symbols and syntactic rules for combining them

as propositinally encoded mental representations which ground higher level representations such as mental images

at increasingly abstract levels so that the symbolic level is grounded in more basic representations such as mental images

– Sensory-based representations (warm, red)
– Image-based representations (relations between elements)
– Propositional/linguistic representations

Symbolic representations are “grounded” in sensory, perceptual and emotional representations derived from experience with the world

representations become increasingly independent of the environmental stimuli they represent

all answers are correct

Gave(Kevin, kiss, Julia); where "gave" is the argument, and "Kevin", "Julia" and "kiss" form the predicates

Kevin(gave, Julia, kiss); where "Kevin" is the predicate, and "gave", "Julia" and "kiss" form the arguments.

The natural language sentence "Kevin gave Julia a kiss" would be represented propositionally as:

Kiss(Julia, Kevin, gave); where "kiss" is the predicate, and "Julia", "Kevin" and "gave" are the arguments

Computations carried out over symbolic representations in the mind

The manipulation of analogue representations in memory

Real time dynamic processes situated in a physical context

All of the above

Adaptive learning in real time based on sensing and a direct representation of the environment

Building models of cognition from the bottom up

The retrieval of stored programmes coded as symbolic rules to guide adaptive navigation of the environment

Both a "Adaptive" and b "Building" above

The testing effect ensures a mapping of the contexts between study and retrieval

The testing effect ensure you get an H1 on the test

The testing effect ensures that you are skeptical of misinformation

The testing effect ensures that distance effects perception

Corrections are more effective when they contain an alternative causal story

Recall alone is not reposible for the persistent influence of misinformation

People remember all of the details, which allows restrospective revision of memory.

Even when you know something has been retracted, it continues to influence your memory

Simple Learning:
Association build up gradually over time

Attentional Learning
Selective attention allows for some aspects of an event to be associated more strongly than others

One-Shot/Fast Mapping
Learning by exclusion, based on what is already known (our expectations)

They are all true

When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it smashed into the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates

When asked whether they remembered seeing any broken glass, estimates were increased when P's were asked to judge how fast the car was going when it contacted the other car.

When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it hit the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates

When warned that the perpetrator's appearance may have changed, eyewitnesses make more false alarms.

Trade offs between salience and validity

Blocking

Highlighting

Learning rules of different complexity

All these answers are correct

A schema is a concept or set of ideas or a framework for representing some aspect of the world. Also called frames, mental sets or scripts but can be generally thought of as a concept.

Schemata influence how you interpret new information and play a large role in determining what you pay attention to when learning (i.e., what is valid for your current understanding of the situation).

Schema determine what you learn and how you represent that knowledge

All of the above are correct

Involuntary processing of "flanking" stimuli occurs even when attempting to ignore them

Stimuli falling within spotlight processed automatically

Implies some parallel processing of conjunction stimuli

All answers are correct

assuming that long-term memory is used to fill in details which are lost to an attentional or retrieval bottleneck

assuming that each memory trace is comprised of perceptual, context and semantic meaning features

assuming that some features are lost due to imperfect attention and recall

by retrieving memory traces in parallel

limits the amount of information that is perceived

is influenced by the fact that sensory limitations prevent all of the details of a scene or an event from being registered in memory

Attention, salience, & distraction affect what “gets in” to memory

All of the above

Cultural Bias can inform memory formation

If not recalled, the details gradually are forgotten until only the gist of what occurred remains

Manipulating prior knowledge of Native Stories influences the consolidation of the memory schema

None of the avove

Stimuli are made up of a multitude of different features or dimensions that can be used to guide attention (encoding) and retrieval

Words and linguistic stimuli

Memory Traces (more generally)
Perceptual features, Semantic Meaning, Action

All these answers are true

It would take you some time to shift your attention to the new diagnostic feature if analysing new categories

Children have a hard time focusing attention on one important thing. Instead, children seem to use all of the features

You can’t attend to everything at once. If you’re attending to one aspect then you’re not attending to other aspects

All these answers are correct

All of the answers are true

Cues are data, the schema is a hypothesis which adapts to explain that data

Providing a misleading cue affects how the schema is retrieved and altered to explain that detail

The number of false assertions incorrectly remembered increases across time and prompting

All of these answers are true

Memory is comprised of a few salient details, but is “knitted together” at retrieval by expectation

Expectation can be altered through asking leading questions or presenting people with misinformation

Once misinformation is present, its influence is difficult to remove

Because our expectations affect what we remember, it makes particularly susceptible to misinformation

People are bad discounting incorrect information even when we know it is false

Unless we have a alternative theory (or schema) which explains the incorrect information

All these answers are true

Some pairs or collections of attributes tend to co-occur together; other combinations are rare or do not logically occur. The implication of this structure is that we can use knowledge about the category to predict missing information (or infer missing information)

In Exemplar theory, we do have access to all of the members of the category so we compute the distance between the probe item and all of the members of category A and all of the members of category B. Then we add up the distances and choose the category with the smallest overall distance.
Attention: Accentuates differences on attended dimensions and Reduces differences on unattended dimensions

When learning proceeds via feature inference, people are sensitive to the correlations between features. Categorization focuses on attention on diagnostic features. Consequently, people are less sensitive to correlations during categorization

None of these are correct

Because memory for detail is poor, people can be influenced by questions which suggests specific expectations

Providing a misleading cue affects how the schema is retrieved and altered to explain that detail

It helps evolve our schemas

All of these answers are true

Provides a means of identification.

Allows organization of knowledge. We can respond to single items based on category membership rather than as unique items

Reduces the complexity of the environment

All these answers are correct

Stopping the search when target is found

Constant scanning rate predicts 2:1 slope ratio

On average, search half the display on target-present trials, all of the display on target-absent trials

All these answers are true

shows that category learning difficulty depends on how many different dimensions are used to define the category

Selective attention has limited capacity. You can’t attend to everything at once. If you’re attending to one aspect then you’re not attending to other aspects

Not everyone can access the same features, a vast array of different perceptual features. Not all of these are relevant for categorization

None of these are correct

Typical:
Instance- The more typical the examples are of the category in the conclusion, the more the conclusion is supported by the premises. Typical instances are more strongly related to the category……and so allow for greater generalization

Typical Conclusion- Conclusions are supported more by premises that are similar. Generalization is greater to more typical category members

Size: More specific conclusions are supported more than less specific conclusions.

Variability: The less similar the premises are among themselves, the more they confirm the conclusion

All of these answers are correct

unobservable attributes (e.g., love, doubt, thought)

relational concepts (e.g., enemy or barrier)

rules (e.g., island, uncle, or acceleration)

All these answers are correct

Categorization focuses on attention on diagnostic features. When the correlation is diagnostic, people learn to use it

Factor which determines the influence or weight of a stimulus dimension or attribute on categorization. Categories which require you to pay attention to more dimensions are harder to learn

Habituation has used to assess simple visual preferences for particular stimuli from iinfancy. There is amazing flexibility in categorization. Adults can acquire exceedingly complex, non-perceptual categories; children cannot

All of the above are true

Different animals to have different strengths

Different light waves to be focused on by different animals

Selective attention can be used to tune into to specific features which are important for differentiating categories. The structure of that world will depend on the perceptions of the agents in that world.

None of these are true

Categories allow marketing firms to selectively target which products you might like to purchase based on your past purchasing behavior.

Categories provide a means for identification.

Categories provide a basis for deciding what constitutes appropriate action

Categories enable organization and relation of classes of objects and events.

Selective attention

Integral stimulus dimensions.

Separable stimulus dimensions.

Distance-based generalization.

Generalization is greater to less specific (i.e., larger categories)

Generalization is greater when the examples are more variable

Typical instances are more strongly related to the category and allow for greater generalization than atypical instances

Generalization is greater to other typical category members than to less typical members

Separable stimulus dimensions are processed faster than integral dimensions in Garner's (1974) filtration categorization condition.

Integral stimulus dimensions are primarily found in basic level categories but separable dimensions are found in subordinate level categories

Separable stimulus dimensions are processed slower than integral dimensions in Garner's (1974) correlated categorization condition.

Integral stimulus dimensions can not be selectively attended to in isolation, but separable dimensions can.

Even when you know something has been retracted, it continues to influence your memory

Recall alone is not responsible for the persistent influence of misinformation

Corrections are more effective when they contain an alternative causal story

People remember all of the details, which allows restrospective revision of memory.

A: Learning involves not only learning what things are associated…
…but also where to attend

B: In simple, associative learning models, it’s assumed that it takes time to build up connections between cues and their associates

C: Expectations provide hypotheses which we use to:
Explain the thing we’re trying to learn
Evaluate our experiences (which in turn allow us to update our expectations)

A and B are correct

assuming that long-term memory is used to fill in details which are lost to an attentional or retrieval bottleneck

assuming that each memory trace is comprised of perceptual, context and semantic meaning features

assuming that some features are lost due to imperfect attention and recall

by retrieving memory traces in parallel

Holmesian Deduction - Once you eliminate the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth

Judicial Exoneration - If one suspect confesses, then we let the other suspect go

Inference to the best explanation

I have some prior beliefs in a hypothesis, H, which predicts that I should observe some data, D.

If I observe D, then H is supported

All these answers are correct

The testing effect ensures that distance effects perception

The testing effect ensures a mapping of the contexts between study and retrieval

The testing effect ensure you get an H1 on the test

The testing effect ensures that you are skeptical of misinformation

When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it smashed into the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates

When asked whether they remembered seeing any broken glass, estimates were increased when P's were asked to judge how fast the car was going when it contacted the other car.

When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it hit the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates

When warned that the perpetrator's appearance may have changed, eyewitnesses make more false alarms.

by presenting survivors with a sequential line-up

by presenting each of the survivors with misinformation and determining whether it influenced their recall

weighting each of the coordinates by how likely that survivor was to know the true coordinate

determining whether the survivors recall of certain events followed Zipf's law.?

Mental images are merely symbolic representations of an object and may not appear the same as they do in real life

Some of our cognitive processes are carried out using analogue representations

The time taken to 'manipulate' mental images in our mind takes twice as long as it would to physically manipulate it in real life

We can manipulate an image in our mind in a different manner to how we may physically manipulate a real object

The angle at which the object had to be rotated was inversely proportional to the mean response time to 'same' pairs

Fairness, Loyalty, Compassion and Empathy

Risks, Harm, Discomfort and Inconvenience

Research Integrity and Merit, Respect, Justice and Beneficence 
 

Research Integrity, Distributive Justice, Respect and Harm 

In the absence of validity, high salience cues will attract attention

Low salience cues will not attract attention

Utilization is like validity but concerns how much people will learn about or use a cue on which to base their response.: high validity increases utility

All these answers are correct

Human Autonomy and Procedural Distribution

Voluntary Decision-Making and Informed consent

Harm and Discomfort

Distributive Justice and Procedural Justice 

Your expectations are hypotheses that you use to evaluate information in the world

Our Experience is Enhanced through Interaction with Design that is Consistent with Expectations

a person’s expectations can be described as perceptual, inductive, and reconstructive biases, as they pertain to perception, learning, and memory, respectively. Bias in this sense means merely that the distribution of expected designs is not uniform — some match expectations better than others

All these answers are true

A schema is a concept or set of ideas for representing some aspect of the world

Schemata are also known as frames, mental sets or scripts

Having a schema can cause information to be reinterpreted or distorted

Schemata can be changed when faced with contradictory information

Your updated belief should be proportional to your prior belief times the likelihood of the observed event (i.e., how much did your hypothesis actually predict the event?)
(Prior Beliefs x Likelihood of Observed Event)

Bayes’s rule suggests that possible explanations should be combined with the data to update our beliefs in each hypothesis
Data are our observations
Not all explanations are created equal because we have different degrees of prior belief

Occam’s Razor: “The simplest explanation (that fits the observed data) is probably the correct explanation. People prefer explanations that explain more data with a minimal number of assumptions.

All these answers are true

Learning based on exclusion

rapidly developing a graph of similarity relations between objects

an increase in inhibitory connections between neurons

a reduction in the action potentials at the stimulated neurons

Learning involves attention

Learning is context specific

Learning is based on changes in a neuron's membrane permeability

Learning is about how you update your prior beliefs based on data

Frequency of co-occurrence an important factor in determining what is learned in the simple learning model

The difference between the predicted and actual outcomes are an important component of the simple learning model

The speed of learning is determined by a parameter in the model

All of these are correct

Target defined by combination of colour and orientation

RT increases linearly with display size

Increase in RT is twice as steep for target absent as target present trials

All these answers are true

Updated beliefs in a hypothesis should be proportional to our prior belief in that hypothesis multiplied by the likelihood that that hypothesis could have generated the observed event

once you eliminate the impossible whatever remains however improbable must be the truth

The simpliest explanation (that fits the observed data) is probably the correct explanation

None of these answers are true

In the pursuit of some goal, organisms must overcome initial fascination (attention) to salient but irrelevant attributes

Organisms must figure out what is relevant for achieving a particular goal

The nature of selective attention determines the mental representations we form about the world

All these answers are correct

Pop out sometimes depends on complex object properties, not just simple features

High-level, not low-level properties predict pop out.

Inconsistent with idea that pop out only occurs at level of simple features

All of these answers are correct

Selectivity of categorisation

Typicality of instances

Typicality of generalisation

Category size

Category variability

A Bounded rationality: Humans reason and choose rationally, but only within the constraints imposed by their limited search
and computational capacities.

B Judgment and decision-making often rests on simplifying heuristics instead of extensive algorithmic processing

CSatisficing: “[U]sing experience to construct an expectation of how good a solution we might reasonably achieve, and halting search as soon as a solution is reached that meets the expectation. Expressed more simply, satisficing is a rule of thumb which says ‘pick the first satisfactory alternative’. It’s likely to be useful when there are a large number of alternatives to compare and the problem is such that determining the optimal choice would necessitate comparing all alternatives.

D A and C are correct

All these answers are correct

Clinical (a.k.a. case) prediction: “Based on intuitions I have developed during interviews with you, I believe you are rehabilitated and should be released from prison.

Clinical prediction performs very poorly relative to statistical prediction

Clinical prediction overweights case characteristics and underweights base rates

A System 1: fast, automatic, non conscious

B System 2: Reflective, conscious, controlled

C Question substitution: Instead of seeking the answer to some complex question, seek the answer to an easier question you believe to be related.

A and B are correct

Provide rewards to motivate participants to check their intuitive impressions

Ensure that participants are not simultaneously having to perform other kinds of mental effort.

Increase metacognitive difficulty

All these answers are correct

Representativeness heuristic

Affect heuristic

Availability heuristic

None of these are true

All these answers are true

The hot hand fallacy

The Law Of Small Numbers

Misperceptions of randomness

Learn about them as concepts

we can learn to recognise situations in which mistakes are likely

easier to notice biases in others than in oneself

All these answers are true

Yes. Heuristics can only be used unconsciously.

No. Heuristics can also be used consciously.

Depends on the context

It's inconclusive

Role of attention is to bind features into perceptual compounds

Each feature (lines, colours etc.) registered in its own feature map

Conjunction targets require feature binding, so need focused attention – leads to serial search

Feature targets don’t require feature binding, don’t need focused attention – leads to parallel search

All answers are true

when estimating quantities people start with an intuitive reference point (the ‘anchor’) and make adjustments to it

This was the first study to demonstrate that anchoring worked even when participants believed the anchor to be totally arbitrary

That people's level of expertise influences the base expectations of their answers

All these answers are true

If one of two objects is recognized and the other is not, then infer that the recognized object has the higher value.

Eliciting frequencies rather than probabilities

Non- anchoring heuristic is the only thing that actually is supported by studies

All answers are true

Kahneman’s biases lack external validity

Kahneman’s heuristics are vaguely theorized/specified and there has been a lack of formal modelling

.Kahneman overstates the problems caused by the computational limitations of our brains

All the above are true

Attentional Learning describes the method of learning by exclusion, based on what we already know

Attentional Learning describes how we typically make trade-offs when we draw inferences

Attentional Learning describes how selective attention allows for some aspects of an event to be associated more strongly than others

Attentional Learning describes how associations build up over time

 Attentional selection based on simple physical features (location in space, voice, etc.)

 Meaning requires access to limited capacity channel, only extracted if stimulus is attended

Brain's ability to self-regulate input from the environment

All these answers are true

Related to psychological arousal (continuum from drowsy, inattentive to alert, attentive)

Problem of vigilance: performance declines over a long watch (radar operators, quality control inspectors, etc.)

All these answers are true

None of these answers are true

Semantic content not analysed (language, meaning)

Translation is selective (stimuli not all treated equally)

No memory/detail for unattended message despite changes to it

All these answers are true

Automaticity is a basis for skill acquisition (reading, driving, playing a musical instrument, etc.)

Criteria for automaticity: Fast, parallel, effortless, doesn't require capacity

Learned S-R associations

All these answers are correct

Source localisation in space important cue

Binaural presentation (both ears receive both messages in the same voice)

None of these are true

All these answers are true

Cherry only looked at what's remembered in referring to aural stimuli

Confounds perception and memory

Stimuli may be perceived but then forgotten

All these answers are true

Filter precedes channel, protects it from overload

All stimuli stored briefly in short term store (STS): stimuli stay for a second, some selected by filter to pass into LC channel

Raw acoustic trace, decays quickly if not selected

Preferred way to recall info is Ear-by-ear recall had more correct stimuli repetition

A Dear Aunt Jane” experiment (Gray & Wedderburn, 1960)

B Moray (1959)

C Filter theory explains simple findings, but can't explain semantic processing of unattended stimuli

D both B and C are true

Many tasks show intermediate pattern, don’t provide clear evidence of either serial or parallel search

parallel and serial functions look like ends of continuum

No evidence of dichotomous population of search slopes (2 different search types)

All these answers are correct

Partially attended stimulus in the LTM is partially activated

Two radios playing simultaneously, filter turns volumes up or down

Filter biased by context, message salience

All answers are correct

Late selection: Differs in where filter is located, after LTM instead of before LTM

Complexity of filter: Needs to respond to semantic context, distinguish related from unrelated stimuli – simpler alternative?

 LS theory: All stimuli access LTM, not sufficient for awareness
 ES theory: LTM activation = conscious awareness

All these answers are true

Bottom-up and top-down selection mechanisms

Stimuli selection by “pertinence” (relevance to task/behavior)

Need both kinds of activation to get through filter, otherwise fades away

All answers are correct

Initial parallel stage provides a candidate list of possible targets
Second serial stage checks candidate list for targets

Similar targets and distractors lead to large candidate list and inefficient search

Dissimilar targets and distractors lead to small candidate list and efficient search

All answers are correct

McKay (1973) Semantic processing on unattended channel: Recognition biased by previous shadowing task

Von Wright, Anderson & Stenman (1975): Conditioned response/activation based acoustics of words,

Neither answers are true

Both answers are true

Conjuction targets pop out; Feature targets don't

Conjunction targets don't pop out; Feature targets do

All these answers are correct

None of the above are true

All answers are correct

reduced detection accuracy on unattended channel

 Filter before LTM

 Semantic activation on unattended channel in the LST

 LS: Semantic activation on unattended channel shown by indirect means

ES: Doesn't deny weak activation of semantic material on unattended channel. Indirect measures don't show it occurs to the same degree

Both answers are correct

Neither answer is correct

A.
Is a process of which we are unconscious

B.
Is a limited capacity process

C.
Is a process that runs inside focal attention

D.
Is a process that runs outside of focal attention

Neither of these answers are true

Both these answers are true

Seem to need to focus attention on target to detect it – focus attention on each item in turn

Constant scanning rate predicts linear RT/display size function

Neither answers are true

 Both answers are true

 Capacity (Resource) Theories:  Information processing is mental work
 Work requires activation of neural structure
 Limited capacity to activate structure

 Structural (Bottleneck) Theories:  Some neural structures can only deal with one stimulus at a time
 Competition produces processing “bottleneck” (filter theory)
 (ES: bottleneck getting into LTM; LS bottleneck getting out)

All answers are true

Can make capacity theories (mathematically) precise using Signal Detection Theory

Emphasises divided attention, flexibility of attentional control

 Value of capacity theory is new experiments it led to

bottom-up (something captures attention)

 Natural environment: Shifts in attention can be top-down (decide to shift attention)

None of these answers are true

 Need both kinds of systems to function

A.
The location of stimuli in space

B.
Information about stimulus identity

C.
Fine spatial detail

D.
Colour and texture

Some search targets require attention

Some search targets seem to “pop out” from the background

All of the above

None of the above

All these answers indicate a failure of theories/knowledge gaps of focussed attention

Visual search looks at costs of divided (distributed) attention: performance decline with increasing display size is evidence of capacity limitations

Situations where there is a benefit not to divide attention: avoid processing distractor stimuli

Failing to factor in Limitations of focused attention and involuntary processing of irrelevant stimuli

Consistent with the idea that automatic processing is capacity-free, effortless encoding (no need for cognitive resource)

Subjectively effortless, spontaneous pop-out of targets from text increased automatic processing

Neither of these answers are true

Both answers are true

None of these answers are true

Objects occupy same region of space, attend to one and rate aesthetic appeal; ignore other

Memory test: good memory for attended figure, none for unattended figure

All the answers are true

RT to name trumpet is slower if ignored on previous trial

Means ignored shape must have been perceived to produce effect on subsequent trial (cf. late selection

attend to one object and ignore another when both occupy same region of space

All answers are true

B More accurate if the two attributes belonged to same object than different objects

A Evidence that attention operates on whole objects

C This study disproved these theories

A and B are correct

Control of attention involves balance of top-down and bottom-up systems

Reflexive system orients to new stimuli, voluntary system provides sustained attentional focus

Failure to focus and failure to disengage and reorient both found in clinical cases  Damage to right parietal lobe

All answers are true

A Computations carried out over symbolic representations in the mind

B The manipulation of analogue representations in memory

C Real time dynamic processes situated in a physical context

D All of the above

A.
Tradeoffs only when the capacity demands of both tasks exceed some threshold

B.
Performance in both tasks will degrade by about the same amount when they are performed together

C.
Tradeoffs that vary smoothly as a function of the capacity allocated to each task

D.
A catastrophic decline in performance if the combined capacity demands of the two tasks exceeds the capacity available

A.
Lexical feedback to the phoneme level

B.
Lateral inhibitory signals

C.
Transitional probabilities between syllables

D.
Parallel activation of lexical nodes

A.
Easier than dichotic listening tasks

B.
Harder than dichotic listening tasks

C.
About as hard as dichotic listening tasks

D.
Harder than dichotic listening tasks when the messages are in the same voice but easier when they are in different voices

Ventral pathway, temporal lobe: form, colour – what pathway

Dorsal pathway, parietal lobe: direction of motion, spatial location – where pathway  Parietal lobe damage disrupts “where” pathway

Neither answer is true

Both answers are true

Deficit in processing spatial information 
Not blind, but difficulty in making left side of space accessible to conscious awareness

Right parietal lobe damage leads to left visual field neglect and vice versa

Behavioural manifestation: failure to dress left side of body, shave left side of face, etc.

All answers are correct

A.
Shorter for cued stimuli than neutrally-cued stimuli and shorter for neutrally-cued stimuli than miscued stimuli

B.
Shorter for cued stimuli than neutrally-cued stimuli and about the same for neutrally-cued and miscued stimuli

C.
About the same for cued stimuli and neutrally-cued stimuli and shorter for neutrally-cued stimuli than miscued stimuli

D.
About the same for cued stimuli, neutrally-cued stimuli and miscued stimuli

Simultaneous identification of two stimuli 
Unimpaired with only one stimulus

left visual field deficit with two simultaneous stimuli 
Perceptual response to one stimulus “extinguishes” response to the other

Late selection theory: Only one signal can get through filter to consciousness at a time  Extinction: Two competing perceptual representations can't co-exist

Recognition, identification require activation of neural structures  Damaged hemisphere chronically underactive, stimuli don't provide activation they should  Effects strongest with activity in other hemisphere (invalid cue, competing stimulus)

All of these answers are correct

D.
Both B and C above

C.
The chimps tended to focus on the rewards associated with the lexigrams rather than on the relationship between the lexigrams and their referents

B.
The chimps were relying on the iconic properties of the lexigrams rather than symbolic reference

A.
The chimps were able to learn the higher-order relationships between the lexigrams

A.
Show impairment in responding to two weak, near-threshold visual stimuli

B.
Show impairment in responding to two strong stimuli

C.
Show impairment in responding to a weak stimulus presented in the left visual field

D.
Show impairment in responding to a strong stimulus presented in the right visual field

B.
An analogue representation can be rotated mentally as if manipulating an actual object in space.

C.
Complex problem solving relies exclusively on analogue representations

D.
Both b. and c. above

A.
Symbolic representations are used to compute the difference in angular rotation between two images.

A.
Adaptive learning in real time based on sensing and a direct representation of the environment

B.
Building models of cognition from the bottom up

C.
The retrieval of stored programmes coded as symbolic rules to guide adaptive navigation of the environment

D.
Both a and b above

A.
Parallel activation

B.
Lateral inhibition

C.
Lexical feedback

D.
Segmentation of the speech stream

A.
Gave(Kevin, kiss, Julia); where "gave" is the argument, and "Kevin", "Julia" and "kiss" form the predicates.

B.
Kevin(gave, Julia, kiss); where "Kevin" is the predicate, and "gave", "Julia" and "kiss" form the arguments.

C.
Gave(Kevin, Kiss, Julia) where "gave" is the predicate, and "Kevin","Julia" and "kiss" form the arguments.

D.
Kiss(Julia, Kevin, gave); where "kiss" is the predicate, and "Julia", "Kevin" and "gave" are the arguments.

Bilateral lesions in parietal and/or occipital cortex

Inability to focus on individual objects and to see more than one object at a time (Simultanagnosia) – prone to illusory conjunctions

Occurs even when objects overlap (Object based!)

All answers are correct

Inhibition of return: cued spatial location tagged as uninteresting, so slower RT there  Tagging associated with objects, not just they space they occupy

d

Neither answer is true

All answers are correct

A.
RTs are shorter when the stimulus is an identifiable perceptual object than when it is not

B.
RTs to stimulus objects composed of conjunctions of features are longer than RTs to stimulus objects composed of single features

C.
RTs to miscued stimuli are longer when they are part of an uncued perceptual object than when they are part of a cued object

D.
RTs to miscued stimuli are longer when they are part of a perceptual object to which attention had been attracted by a peripheral cue presented at a long SOA

A.
In Treisman?s theory, messages can be selected based on their meaning

B.
Treisman?s theory predicts that the word ?tap? will be detected more accurately if it occurs on an attended than unattended channel

C.
In Treisman?s theory, unattended messages are attenuated rather than blocked

D.
In Treisman?s theory, there is no switching cost delay in processing an unattended message

• Indexical relationships are crucial to establish the link between a word and its referent

• Word reference is often supplemented by pairing the sound of the word with an iconic gesture/images

• Iconic relationships between one instance of a word and another (similarity of one word/past exposure to the word in the past) become important to establish reliable word recognition

All of these answers are correct

A.
Counting the number of times a basketball is passed around

B.
Matching a character description with an occupation

C.
Working out that a person?s face is angry

D.
Working out the answer to 2 + 2

A.
Mean RTs with peripheral cues and short SOAs are shorter at cued locations than at miscued locations

B.
Mean RTs with peripheral cues and short SOAs are longer at cued locations than at miscued locations

C.
Mean RTs with peripheral cues and long SOAs are shorter at cued locations than at miscued locations

D.
Mean RTs with peripheral cues and long SOAs are longer at cued locations than at miscued locations

A.
in a range of different formats, from analogue to symbolic representations

B.
as a "language of thought" composed of symbols and syntactic rules for combining them

C.
as propositinally encoded mental representations which ground higher level representations such as mental images

D.
at increasingly abstract levels so that the symbolic level is grounded in more basic representations such as mental images

A.
Participants rated Linda as being slightly less likely to be a bank teller than a bank teller active in the feminist movement

B.
Participants rated Linda as being slightly more likely to be a bank teller than a bank teller active in the feminist movement

C.
Performance became a great deal better; a much smaller proportion of participants committed the conjunction fallacy than in the 8-option version of the study

D.
Results were essentially the same as in the 8-option version of the study

A The testing effect ensures that distance effects perception

B The testing effect ensures that you are skeptical of misinformation

C The testing effect ensures a mapping of the contexts between study and retrieval

D The testing effect ensure you get an H1 on the test

A.
The nodes representing the lexical representations for low frequency words in the lexical route take longer to activate than those representing high frequency words, giving the non-lexical route time to produce a competing regularised pronunciation for low frequency irregular words.

B.
The nodes representing the lexical representations for low frequency words in the non-lexical route take longer to activate than those representing high frequency words, giving the lexical route time to produce a competing regularised pronunciation for low frequency irregular words.

C.
The nodes representing low frequency words in the orthographic lexicon have a lower threshold for activation than those representing high frequency words, giving time for the non-lexical route to produce a competing regularised pronunciation for low frequency irregular words.

D.
Both A and C above

A assuming that long-term memory is used to fill in details which are lost to an attentional or retrieval bottleneck

B assuming that each memory trace is comprised of perceptual, context and semantic meaning features

C assuming that some features are lost due to imperfect attention and recall

D by retrieving memory traces in parallel

Symbolic- Symbolic reference is based on some formal or agreed upon link (social convention)
Symbolic reference holds irrespective of: The similarity in physical characteristics between sign or object (iconic). there is nothing about the sound of the word CAT that resembles cattishness any physical or temporal contiguity between sign and object (index)

• Indexical- Indexical reference is based on a physical or temporal contiguity (correlation, co-occurrence) between a sign and what it signifies:
• Words can be used indexically when they point directly to their meaning:
• here, there, I, me, you, this, etc.
• Nouns and verbs are initially used indexically in the presence of the thing or action to which they refer

• Iconic- Iconic reference is based on a physical similarity (resemblance) between the sign and what it signifies.
A portrait or landscape painting relies on the physical similarity between the painting and that which is represented.

All these answers are correct

A.
Availability is positively related to ease of processing

B.
Availability is positively related to the amount of content recalled

C.
If you?re asked to recall assertive behaviors then assertiveness will be more available than if you were asked to recall unassertive behaviours

D.
If you?re asked to recall unassertive behaviors then assertiveness will be more available than if you were asked to recall assertive behaviors

A.
Eliciting frequencies instead of probabilities

B.
Emphasizing the role of random sampling to participants

C.
Getting participants to hold a 7-digit number in their head while doing the task

D.
Printing the questionnaire in a hard-to-read font

A When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it smashed into the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates

B When asked whether they remembered seeing any broken glass, estimates were increased when P's were asked to judge how fast the car was going when it contacted the other car.

C When asked to estimate how fast the car was going when it hit the other car, P's generated faster speed estimates

D When warned that the perpetrator's appearance may have changed, eyewitnesses make more false alarms.

A) People remember all of the details, which allows restrospective revision of memory

b) Corrections are more effective when they contain an alternative causal story

(c) Recall alone is not reposible for the persistent influence of misinformation

(d) Even when you know something has been retracted, it continues to influence your memory

The Lexical Route:
For recognising familiar words rapidly on the basis of a stored lexical orthographic representation for the whole word, the whole spelling holistically
Used for familiar words (both regular and irregular)
Necessary for reading irregular words.

The Non-lexical Route:
Knowledge of rules for translating letters into sounds
Grapheme-Phoneme-Conversion rules (GPC rules).
For “sounding-out” unfamiliar words.
Phonological Recoding
Irregular words will be ‘regularised’ (i.e., mispronounced)

Both answers are correct

Neither answer are correct

A.
Abnormally long RTs in responding to cued stimuli in the left visual field

B.
Abnormally long RTs in responding to miscued stimuli in the left visual field

C.
Abnormally long RTs in responding to cued stimuli in the right visual field

D.
Abnormally long RTs in responding to miscued stimuli in the right visual field

(1) determining whether the survivors recall of certain events followed Zipf's law.

(2) weighting each of the coordinates by how likely that survivor was to know the true coordinate

(3) by presenting each of the survivors with misinformation and determining whether it influenced their recall

(4) by presenting survivors with a sequential line-up

A.
Selective attention, divided attention with one target, and divided attention with two targets were all about as hard as each other

B.
Divided attention was harder than selective attention; divided attention with one target was about as hard as divided attention with two targets

C.
Divided attention with one target was harder than selective attention; divided attention with two targets was harder than divided attention with one target

D.
Divided attention with one targets was about as hard as selective attention; divided attention with two targets was harder than divided attention with one target

A.
Performance on the first target is worse if it is followed by a second target that must be processed

B.

Performance on the second target is worse if the first target is to be ignored

C.
Performance on the second target is worse if the first target must be processed

D.
Performance on the second target is better if the first target is masked by an immediately following letter to make it harder to see

The Frequency effect
Frequently encountered words are read more quickly than less frequently encountered words

The regularity effect
Irregular words are read more slowly than regular words.

Frequency x Regularity Interaction
Regularity affects low frequency words (pint) more than high frequency words

All of the above

a.
...the subject tends to make the response which leads to reward Y indicating that cue D has been highlighted by cue A's previous association with response X.

b.
...the subject tends to be distracted by highlighted information and chooses response Y because it is more salient

c.
...bees waggle to highlight which direction the food source is

d.
...the subject chooses response D because A is highlighted by the previous association with B.

A.
Their semantic content

B.
Their location in space

C.
The language in which they are spoken

D.
The volume of the speaker?s voice

A.
There is a limit on the amount of neural structure we can activate to process stimuli

B.
Stimuli in divided attention tasks compete for the same neural structures

C.
The semantic analysis system imposes a processing bottleneck on performance

D.
The sensory analysis system imposes a processing bottleneck on performance

A.
A word from a target category that was used in the conditioning phase evokes a GSR when it is presented on an attended channel

B.
A word from a target category that was used in the conditioning phase evokes a GSR when it is presented on an unattended channel

C.
A word from a target category that was not used in the conditioning phase evokes a GSR when it is presented on an attended channel

D.
A word from a target category that was not used in the conditioning phase evokes a GSR when it is presented on an unattended channel

A.
The rapid recognition of familar regular and irregular words by the automatic application of grapheme-phoneme conversion rules

B.
The rapid recognition of familiar irregular words by the automatic application of grapheme-phoneme conversion rules

C.
The rapid recognition of familiar regular words on the basis of a match between the input and a stored lexical orthographic representation

D.
The rapid recognition of familiar regular and irregular words?on the basis of a match between the input and a stored lexical orthographic representation

• S-SR Wanted to teach Sherman and Austin to communicate symbolically with each other about an object that was not visible.

– comprehension (receptive language) rather than on production
– and symbolic reference rather than syntax.

• Apes can comprehend symbols, but production does not lead spontaneously to comprehension
• In order to function "representationally”, the symbols learned by apes must become decontextualized and freed for use in novel situation

All of these answers are true

A.
RTs to a target stimulus are shorter if it was also a target stimulus on a preceding trial

B.
RTs to a target stimulus are longer if it was also a target stimulus on a preceding trial

C.
?RTs to a target stimulus are shorter if it was a to-be-ignored stimulus on a preceding trial

D.
RTs to a target stimulus are longer if it was a to-be-ignored stimulus on a preceding trial

– (The chimps) Had to separate the names of things from the contingencies associated with the learning of those names. They needed to be able to separate the names of things from the contingencies associated with learning those names.

• Teaching the names of objects by association
• Sherman and Austin had great difficulty with this task once there were two or more lexigrams to choose from.
• They were paying attention to the rewards that followed the symbol, not to the object-symbol relationship.

• Subsequently generalised learning to learning names of new objects in a single trial

Behaviourist Skinner- symbolic communication (mere associative learning) with pidgeons.

A.
Sometimes conjunctions of features pop out

B.
Some tasks show patterns of search intermediate between serial and parallel search

C.
Some search tasks are better described as efficient and inefficient rather than serial and parallel

D.
All of the above

The likelihood (probability) that any given syllable follows another differs within words, and across word boundaries.

Infants’ sensitivity to such adjacent transitional probabilities in continuous speech enables them to parse speech.

Both answers are correct

Neither answer is correct

A.
It is easier to program letters and digits on a computer

B.
Skilled readers are familiar with letters and digits, which reduces variability in performance and makes statistical inference easier

C.
It allows quantification of the overall processing load

D.
It is easier to control the overall contrast of the stimuli, which is known to have an effect on RT

The regularity x frequency interaction:
Low frequency irregular words are processed slower in the lexical route
due to low frequency words being coded with higher thresholds of activation.
This gives time for a competing “regularised” pronunciation to be generated by the non-lexical route.

Neither answer is correct

Both answers are correct

High frequency irregular words are recognised fast enough in the lexical route to avoid significant interference from the output of the non-lexical route

(a) Learning involves attention

b) Learning is context specific

(c) Learning is based on changes in a neuron's membrane permeability

(d) Learning is about how you update your prior beliefs based on data

1). Regular words
cat, spank, cowboy, apple
Follow spelling-sound correspondence rules

2). Irregular words /Exception words/ inconsistent words
yacht, sew, colonel, pint, what, head
Break the usual spelling-sound rules
Must be recognised on the basis of their unique spelling pattern

3). Novel words (nonwords)
jusk, lelt, dockel, bunset
Must use the rules, or an analogy to a similar word, to produce a candidate pronunciation

All answers are correct

A.
A serial exhaustive search

B.
A serial self-terminating search

C.
A parallel exhaustive search

D.
A parallel self-terminating search

A.
There was a consistent mapping between target and distractor categories

B.
There was a varied mapping between target and distractor categories

C.
People practised the same task for a long time

D.
There were rewards for correct detections and punishments for incorrect detections

regularities in the stress-patterns of their native language.
The stress pattern (metrical rhythm) of a language is one element of the prosody of the language

This strong–weak (trochaic) pattern is the opposite to that used in languages such as Polish, in which a weak–strong (iambic) pattern predominates

All languages contain words of both kinds of rhythems , but one pattern typically predominates

Stress provides a prosodic cue to help infants identify potential words within the speech stream

C.
The intensity of the calls is associated with the urgency of the threat

B.
The calls are produced only in the presence of the associated threat

A.
Each call is associated with a specific behavioural response

D.
All of the above

A source of ambiguity in speech is caused by the time it takes for spoken words to unfold

speech is being evaluated and re-evaluated continuously against numerous potential lexical candidates, activated in parallel.

Both answers are correct

Neither answer is correct

a.
Learning based on exclusion

b.
rapidly developing a graph of similarity relations between objects

c.
an increase in inhibitory connections between neurons

d.
a reduction in the action potentials at the stimulated neurons

Frequency of co-occurrence an important factor in determining what is learned in the simple learning model

Generalization based on a single observation determines what is learned

Judicial exoneration is a good way to describe how the model works

The model should be preferred because it is simple

Laughter, facial expressions, tone of voice (prosody) and gestures all provide paralinguistic cues to meaning

– Syntax
• rules for combining words into sentences

– Word meaning
• symbolic reference

All of these answers are correct

because what determines the meaning of a symbol is not the probability of co-occurrence with its referent (object or event) in time or space.

symbolic meaning is a complex function of the relationship that a symbol has to other symbols within a symbolic system

• Words are defined by their relationship to other words
• Higher-order correlations between words within a grammar begin to matter more than the co-occurrence of a word and its referent in time or space
• Words with similar meanings are often used alternatively, not together
• Words with different meanings tend to be adjacent to one another in sentences.
• The frequency with which specific word combinations are repeated is extremely low, language is on the fly, don’t use standard combinations.

All answers are correct

This explicit knowledge of the phonemic structure of spoken language is known as phonemic awareness (PA)

PA can be distinguished from the implicit knowledge that underpins your ability to recognise spoken words that differ by a single phoneme.

Both answers are correct

Neither answer are correct

D.
All of the above

C.
A physical similarity between the sign and the thing signified

B.
A temporal and/or spatial relationship between the sign and the thing signified

A.
A socially defined relationship between the sign and the thing signified

Neither answer is correct

Both answers are correct

For example, while hearing "beetle", TRACE will initially build activation for both "beetle" and "beaker".
However, over time, "beetle" inhibits (suppresses) "beater"

As activation accumulates in multiple lexical nodes, the nodes compete via lateral inhibitory mechanisms.

C.
No, because symbolic reference is defined by the interpretation of the sign within a linguistic system, not by whether individual signs within the system retain aspects of iconicity or indexicality.

A.
Yes, because symbolic reference is defined by all signs within the linguistic system being arbitrarily related to their referents rather than being inconic or indexical

B.
Yes, because languages must be spoken, not visual-spatial

D.
No, because sign languages are better thought of as primitive proto-languages

C.
Sherman and Austin used symbolic lexigrams to communicate

B.
Sherman and Austin named the hidden food on the first trial based on their prior learning of naming and requesting

A.
Sherman and Austin were highly motivated by food rewards

D.
Sherman and Austin were trained on each component of the task in sequence

The model includes two lexical-level mechanisms for word recognition.
Lexical feedback
Lateral inhibition

It is based on a system of processing units called nodes. Nodes represent elements of information within the system, from the lowest perceptual level of phonetic features, through the phonemic level (for individual speech sounds) and the word level (where nodes represent individual word forms).

Each kind of node is organised within a separate layer of the system, with the phonetic features, phonemes, and words constituting separate layers of nodes within the network. Each node has a resting level and a threshold for activation. When the input is consistent with one of the nodes, the activation level of the node rises from its resting state towards its threshold. Nodes within this system are highly interconnected and when a given node reaches threshold it may influence other nodes to which it is connected. An active node can both raise the level of activation of nodes that are consistent with it (excitation) and lower the level of activation of nodes that are inconsistent with it (inhibition). The connections between layers are excitatory. Excitatory activation flows upwards (feed-forward) through the layers of the system from the phonetic feature level to the word level. This is referred to as “bottom-up” activation from the perceptual level. Activation can also flow back down through the system from the word level to the phonetic feature level. This is referred to as feedback, or “top-down” activation. In addition to the excitatory connections between layers, there are also inhibitory connections between nodes within each layer. These connections are known as lateral inhibitory connections. Inhibitory connections enable a node to suppress the activation of a competing node.

All answers are correct

A.
Words with regular spelling-sound correspondences (e.g., MINT) are recognised more quickly in visual word recognition tasks than words with irregular spelling-sound correspondences (e.g., PINT).

B.
Words that are similar in spelling to many other words (e.g., CAT) are recognised more slowly in visual word recognition tasks than words that have unusual spelling patterns (e.g., YACHT).

C.
Words that are high in written frequency are responded to more quickly in visual word recognition tasks than words that are low in frequency.

D.
Words with spellings that are associated with more than one meaning (e.g., BANK) are responded to more slowly in visual word recognition tasks than words whose spellings are associated with only one meaning

Word recognition (recognition of the physical forms of words) provides the window through which we access meaning.

This effortlessness is based on the recognition of individual words in the speech stream, or in print.

None of these answers are correct

All these answers are correct

The process whereby the memory for a specific word form is located, “opened”, or “activated”

linguistic modalities that are for perceptual word forms (arbitrary signs) that map onto concepts (semantics

A mental dictionary

All these answers are correct

All answers are correct

The ability to segment the speech stream despite “noisy”(i.e., imperfect, variable) input and great variability between speakers begins early in development.

spoken words are perceived as coherent, discrete, events – auditory objects

Segmenting the speech stream is a non-trivial task