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S/P Psych Lecture/Tute Qs

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Moral Psychology, SMR, SCR, Moral intuition and reasoning, Processes of Moral Judgements, Regression Models, Social Influence on Behaviour and Attitude, Evolution Psych, Personality, Nature, Nurture, Situations
Taylor Carre-Riddell
Quiz by Taylor Carre-Riddell, updated more than 1 year ago
Taylor Carre-Riddell
Created by Taylor Carre-Riddell over 7 years ago
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Resource summary

Question 1

Question
Consequences of social and self categorization include:
Answer
  • Change the way that ambiguous behavior is interpreted
  • Structural consequences Category differentiation model (Doise, 1978): Intergroup differentiation
  • Outgroup homogeneity
  • Explanatory consequences Explaining ingroup and outgroup behaviour Attribution: explaining other people’s behavior (esp. in relation to causes) via situational behavior and dispositional behavior.
  • Ingroup favoritism: prejudice
  • All these answers are correct

Question 2

Question
Personality psychology can be defined as:
Answer
  • Attempts to understand the self and the social world with an emphasis on how stable individual differences influence behavior, thought and feeling
  • Attempts to understand the self and the social world with an emphasis on how the situation shapes behavior, thought and feeling
  • Person vs. situation E.g., conflict
  • Broad discipline with fuzzy boundaries: Blend into other areas (biological, cognitive, developmental…)

Question 3

Question
The signature moral response can be defined as:
Answer
  •  The signature moral response (SMR):  Serious, wrong, bad  Punishable  Authority independent (wrong regardless of authority claims)  General in scope (universal)  Appeals to harm
  • The key distinguishing feature of stimulus: harm or welfare (also rights and justice)
  •  Less serious, less wrong, less bad  Less punishable  Authority dependent  Local in scope No appeals to harm
  • None of these answers are correct

Question 4

Question
Systematizing variability in moral responses currently includes:
Answer
  • Shweder et al. (1997) ) Looked at other concepts/key terms that occurred with morality eg. right and wrong, good and bad, associated concepts in everyday language. Proposed 3 Domains of Ethics
  • Moral Foundations Theory (Haidt & Graham, 2004, 2007)
  •  Between-culture differences  WEIRD – Western. Educated. Industrialized. Rich. Democratic.  Moralize harm/care and fairness/reciprocity  NON-WEIRD (Not Western)  Moralize all five domains, loyalty, authority respect  Within-culture differences SocioEconomicStatus differences: SES Increase, community and purity domains decrease.
  • all of the above are correct

Question 5

Question
Moral Psychology can be thought of as:
Answer
  • Run experiments to uncover empirical regularities or facts about moral judgment and behaviour with an aim to uncovering psychological mechanisms underlying moral judgment and behavior, with a naturalized approach (no supernatural), base explanations in biology.
  • not endorsing, just exploring phenomena and the processes involved
  • response-dependent: what counts as moral is that set of phenomena to which people have ‘moral’ responses
  • All these answers are correct

Question 6

Question
Some theories propose that either emotional or reason is the process behind moral judgement.
Answer
  • Social Intuitionist Model (SIM; Haidt, 2001) supports arguments for reasoning MJ
  • Social Intuitionist Model (SIM; Haidt, 2001) supports arguments for emorional/intuitive MJ
  •  Dual process model: revised Competition Theory (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)  Both in the moral black box and they often conflict  What drives moral judgment is a of function properties of the stimuli (e.g., personal vs. impersonal) as well as situational factors (e.g., mood) and individual differences  Emotion drives deontological reactions, reasoning drives utilitarian responses and the competition between these two processes informs moral judgment
  • Social Intuitionist Model (SIM; Haidt, 2001) supports arguments for emorional/intuitive MJ, and Dual process model: revised Competition Theory (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)  Both in the moral black box and they often conflict  What drives moral judgment is a of function properties of the stimuli (e.g., personal vs. impersonal) as well as situational factors (e.g., mood) and individual differences  Emotion drives deontological reactions, reasoning drives utilitarian responses and the competition between these two processes informs moral judgment

Question 7

Question
moral reasoning and moral intuition are defined as, respectively:
Answer
  • conscious mental activity that consists of transforming given information about people in order to reach a moral judgment. To say that moral reasoning is a conscious process means that the process is intentional, effortful, and controllable and that the reasoner is aware that it is going on and sudden appearance in consciousness of a moral judgment, including an affective valence (good-bad, like-dislike), without any conscious awareness of having gone through steps of searching, weighing evidence, or inferring a conclusion. Moral intuitions are largely dependent on emotions
  • sudden appearance in consciousness of a moral judgment, including an affective valence (good-bad, like-dislike), without any conscious awareness of having gone through steps of searching, weighing evidence, or inferring a conclusion. Moral intuitions are largely dependent on emotions and conscious mental activity that consists of transforming given information about people in order to reach a moral judgment. To say that moral reasoning is a conscious process means that the process is intentional, effortful, and controllable and that the reasoner is aware that it is going on
  • (Reason, reasoning, rationality) vs. (emotion, intuition, gut feeling)
  • All are correct

Question 8

Question
Dual process models of individual attitude change
Answer
  • D  Individual differences  Need for cognition: high – central; low – peripheral
  • C Situational  Mood: happy – peripheral; sad – central  Importance to self: important – central; unimportant – peripheral
  •  B Peripheral (heuristic) route: taken when people are unwilling or unable to think carefully about message content
  •  A Central (systematic) route: taken when people are motivated and capable of thinking carefully about message content
  • A and B
  • C and D

Question 9

Question
Kohlberg (1963) Stage Theory of Moral Development supports:
Answer
  • Reasoning and rational processing of MJ
  • Different ages people will engage with these concepts using different concepts. Young children will use obedience/punishment, individualism and exchange, then social order. When people see a stimulus, people use different, varied, deliberate, conscious, logical, moral reasoning according to a set of social rules to conjure a judgement  Stages:  obedience/punishment,  individualism/exchange,  roles,  social order,  individual rights,  universal principles  Emphasis on consciously accessible rules that were applied at the time of judgment.  Stimulus – reasoning – judgment
  •  Dual process model: revised Competition Theory (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)  Both in the moral black box and they often conflict
  • All these answers are correct

Question 10

Question
The minimal conditions of us vs. them thinking states:
Answer
  • don’t need rich cultural contexts to engage in categorization
  • Us vs. them categorization happens under any social conditions
  • Tajfel et al (1971): Schoolchildren do a Point allocation task: Klee or Kandinsky paintings- no association b/w preferences and allotted group they were told they belong too, a label. Intergroup discrimination occurred despite random categorization. Mere categorization (based on minimal group conditions) elicited ingroup favoritism This study's hypothesis were supported
  • All these answers are correct

Question 11

Question
Both kinds of processes are likely involved in moral judgments, but they “compete” in order to give rise to a response.
Answer
  • This is known as Competition Theory Greene et al. (2001, 2004).  Each problem pits a deontological option (what is “good” is based on the rule: do not kill innocents) against a utilitarian option (greatest good for greatest number)  Deontological response driven by gut-reactions, emotion, intuition  Utilitarian response driven by controlled, effortful reasoning processes
  •  Dual process model (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)  Both in the moral black box and they often conflict  What drives moral judgment is a of function properties of the stimuli (e.g., personal vs. impersonal) as well as situational factors (e.g., mood) and individual differences  Emotion drives deontological reactions, reasoning drives utilitarian responses and the competition between these two processes informs moral judgment
  • Other factors that influence moral judgement beyond emotion and reasoning: Decision framing (how you word the moral story (e.g., Petrinovich & O’Neill, 1996)
  • Greene et al (2001) Competition Theory and the revised version are correct

Question 12

Question
You can define Correlation as:
Answer
  • Standardised metric quantifying degree and direction of linear relationship between two numeric variables (i.e., X and Y)
  • As how 1 variable causes another
  • How two variables can be present in different contexts
  • None of the above

Question 13

Question
Why is correlation important?
Answer
  • One of the most frequently used statistics – Important to be able to interpret it correctly
  • Fundamental to theory building in psychology – and outside of psychology as well!
  • It helps determine when 2 variables of interest are associated with each other
  • All of these answers are correct

Question 14

Question
Examples of when Non-Linear Forms of the Correlation Relationship include:
Answer
  • arousal and performance
  • intensity of signal and probability of detection
  • frequency of tap drip and ability to concentrate
  • All these are true examples

Question 15

Question
Homoscedasticity is:
Answer
  • Homoscedasticity In statistics, a sequence or a vector of random variables is homoscedastic if all random variables in the sequence or vector have the same finite variance. This is also known as homogeneity of variance
  • scatterplot of residuals against predicted values to check for heteroscedasticity. • Absence of any systematic pattern supports the assumption of homoscedasticity
  • None of these answers are correct
  • Both these answer are correct

Question 16

Question
The Purpose of Social categorization is:
Answer
  • To create boundaries/definitions between communities and cultures
  • To classify parameters such as age and SES
  • To classify participants in studies
  • None of these answers are correct: it's used to navigate/orient ourselves in the world, effort minimizing, pressed for time, communicative

Question 17

Question
Null Hypothesis testing in Correlation proccess involves:
Answer
  • The null hypothesis for correlation is: The correlation in the population is zero. 1 If the probability associated with this null hypothesis is small (p < .05), then we reject the null hypothesis.
  • 2 So, we infer that the correlation value for the population is NOT zero
  • 3 There is a significant association between the two variables
  • None of these steps are in order
  • These steps are in order

Question 18

Question
Degree of Relationship involves:
Answer
  • every change in the X variable is accompanied by a corresponding change in the Y variable
  • With some research questions, correlations of .05 can be large With others, correlations as high as .6 or .8 can be low
  • Correlations range from -1 to +1
  • All these answers are true

Question 19

Question
• Y = a + bX + e (Regression Model formula)
Answer
  • • Y = a + bX + e l a is the intercept parameter (sometimes called the constant) l b is the slope parameter l e is an error or residual term. l Errors are assumed to be: – Independent – Normally distributed
  • » Normally distributed with a mean of 0 – Homoscedastic » Equal error variance for levels of predicted Y
  • • Y = a + bX + e l a is the intercept parameter (sometimes called the constant) l b is the slope parameter l e is an error or residual term.
  • All of the above are correct

Question 20

Question
Pendry & Carrick (2001) demonstrates:
Answer
  • Outgroup compliance is less than ingroup
  • a group tendency in behaviour, belief etc. These perceptions of what others do or think we should do influence our behavior in powerful ways
  • Have conformity/rebellious in mind, impact own conformity during a task
  • None of these answers are true

Question 21

Question
The Pearson correlation coefficient (r):
Answer
  • It compares how much the two variables vary together compared with how much they vary seperately
  • Extreme scores or outliers can greatly influence value of correlation.
  • r = Covariability of X / Variability of X and Y Separately
  • All these answers are true

Question 22

Question
The differnce between these two formulas are:
Answer
  • There is no difference
  • Y = a + bx + e is observed Y ascore (acual data) whereas Yˆ = a + bx is precicted Y score
  • Y = a + bx + e is precicted Y score Yˆ = a + bx is observed, actual Y score
  • They are used in univariate or bivariate data

Question 23

Question
Evolution is:
Answer
  • Those individuals with greater chances of survival and reproductive success (due to the possession of adaptive traits
  • offspring will tend to resemble their parents (i.e. inherit their traits).Thus certain adaptive traits are selected for.
  • These adaptive traits increase in frequency in future generations, thus coming to be widespread within a species.
  • All these answers are true

Question 24

Question
Exacerbating (enhancing) factors of intergroup conflict include:
Answer
  • Individual differences: Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA): Tendency to submit to established authorities and adhere to social conventions Social Dominance Orientation (SDO): desire to promote intergroup hierarchies (egalitarianism is bad as promotes equal authority) and for one’s in-groups to dominate their out-groups
  • Competition Realistic Conflict Theory (LeVine & Campbell, 1972): intergroup hostility arises from competition among groups for scarce (and thus valued) material resources. Intergroup bias goes up when survival is tough.
  • Intergroup Threat: Integrated Threat Theory (Stephan & Stephan, 1985) Realistic threat: threats to the material well-being of the ingroup, such as their economic benefits, political power, and health (from another outgroup) Symbolic threat: threats to the ingroup’s system of values-immigrant rhetoric Intergroup anxiety: feelings of anxiety people experience during intergroup interactions associated with negative outcomes for the self (embarrassed, rejected, ridiculed)
  • All these answers are correct

Question 25

Question
Correlation regression involves
Answer
  • All of these answers are true
  • If we know two variables are related (correlation) we can use this knowledge to make predictions about behaviour.
  • A linear relationship between two variables
  • Regression model Y = a + b X + (error)

Question 26

Question
Functions of influence include:
Answer
  • To keep social order
  •  Normative influence: going along to fit in/connect/belong (often only public/surface)  Informational influence: going along to be accurate (often private/deep)
  • To navigate the world, for surivival
  • None of these answers are true

Question 27

Question
In Regression Toward the Mean with imperfect correlation, an extreme score on one measure tends to be followed by a less extreme score on the other measure
Answer
  • Extreme scores are often (but not always) due to chance
  • If it’s due to chance, it’s extremely unlikely that the other value will also be extreme
  • Both these are correct

Question 28

Question
Benefits of learning stats include:
Answer
  • – Tool for understanding the world and developing psychological theory – About explaining variability – About generalising from a set of observations to the broader population
  • • Aim is to improve experimental design and analyses
  • • Training you to bridge the research and applied world – Critically evaluate existing research – Conduct and report your own research – Build a more sophisticated understanding of reality, which can then be applied to helping others
  • All answers are true

Question 29

Question
Regression parameters include:
Answer
  • Intercept (a) Estimated value of Y when X = 0. May or may not be a meaningful quantity
  • Slope (b) indicates: - whether there is a relationship between X and Y - whether that relationship is positive or negative (cf correlation) - estimate of expected change in Y when X increases by 1 Slope can be translated into standardised form convert X and Y into z-scores and then do the regression standardised regression coefficient (called beta in SPSS.) compare with correlation coefficient for bivariate data Can also have confidence intervals for regression coefficients
  • None of these answers are correct
  • All of these answers are correct

Question 30

Question
Attitudes can guide behaviour ....
Answer
  • Attitudes can guide behaviour without much thought
  • Attitudes can guide behaviour through considered intentions
  • Attitudes can guide behaviour in relation to self presentation/norms
  • All answers are true

Question 31

Question
Theusefullness of the F test for Regression is:
Answer
  • The F test tells us whether the variance explained is significantly different from zero.
  • If the F test is not significant, the regression is worthless. The predictor does not explain the outcome variable at all.
  • There is no relationship
  • The two details are correct

Question 32

Question
Kin selection, Hamilton’s rule states:
Answer
  •  Based on Hamilton’s rule, one is more likely to perform altruistic act X (with fixed cost C and fixed benefit B) For kin than non-kin
  •  rB > C  r=degree of genetic relatedness; B=benefit to recipient; C=cost to helper.
  • All of these answers are true
  • None of these answers are true

Question 33

Question
Reciprocal altruism
Answer
  • : altruism for non-kin can evolve as long as such altruism is reciprocated (either at the time or at some later date)
  • both helper and recipient benefit
  • Social contract theory (Cosmides & Tooby, 1992) (Detecting cheats)  Reciprocal altruism can evolve if it is protected from cheaters  Evolved cheater detection systems: recognition of individuals, memory for interaction histories, communication of one’s values, model others’ values, represent costs and benefits
  • All answers are true

Question 34

Question
When do Attitudes Guide Behaviour?
Answer
  • Attitude Accessibility: To influence behaviour, the “right” attitude must be accessible. Those who are low in self-monitoring have more accessible attitudes. Attitudes can become aware deliberately - reminding people to think about their attitudes. Self-awareness makes attitudes more accessible. Attitudes can become accessible automatically.
  • Attitude Compatibility: Specific attitudes influence specific behaviours.
  • Personal Control: If we believe we can control our behaviour, attitudes have a big influence. When we believe our behaviour is not under our personal control, attitudes have little influence.
  • All answers are correct

Question 35

Question
Basic psychological processes that give rise to intergroup include:
Answer
  • Social Identity Theory (SIT) People prefer to have a positive self-concept, boost positive self-esteem. Personal identity (attributes of you as an individual) and social identity (those parts of the self-concept derived from our knowledge and feelings about our ingroups).
  • Self-categorization theory: Categorize ourselves as group members Such self-categorization leads to depersonalization, assimilation (behavior) to ingroup norms, and self-stereotyping
  • Social categorization: the placement of individuals into a class of similar individuals, often based on features such as gender, ethnicity, nationality…Primitives: age, gender, race (contested): we can’t help but categorize people. Other salient groups apply
  • All of these answers are correct

Question 36

Question
 Cialdini et al. (1990) , in a Group (imagined) – NV – behaviour context, shows:
Answer
  •  Descriptive norm influenced behavior
  •  Cross-norm inhibition: norm-adherence inhibited or undermined by violations of other norms (break one rule, break many)
  • None of the above
  • All of the above

Question 37

Question
Consequences of social categorization include:
Answer
  • Social categorization can automatically activate information consistent with the ST
  • Stereotyping: process of viewing an individual in light of a stereotype, draw upon group stereotype to understand individual
  • expectancies about a social group (probable behaviors, traits, features) can be positive or negative (cf. prejudice- judging negative)
  • All these answers are correct

Question 38

Question
Social Identity Theory (SIT) is:
Answer
  • People prefer to have a positive self-concept, boost positive self-esteem Our selves are composed of personal (individual) and group-related identities: Personal identity (attributes of you as an individual) and social identity (those parts of the self-concept derived from our knowledge and feelings about our ingroups). See ingroup identity a more positive relative to outgroup identity to boost self-esteem.
  • Intergroup differentiation ; Within group homogeneity (especially for outgroups)
  • Cross-race identification bias (Other race effect- they all look/think the same)
  • All these answers are correct:

Question 39

Question
Asch (1951) shows:
Answer
  • surface conformality
  • Mirror Neuron activity
  • Perception and behaviour links
  • All of these answers

Question 40

Question
Resolving conflict solutions involve
Answer
  • Extended contact: knowledge that other ingroup members have outgroup friends can reduce intergroup bias
  • Intergroup contact: The more contact one has with an outgroup, the less prejudice one expresses
  • Individual differences (the good kind): fostering positive individual differences: “building character”
  • All these answers are correct
  • Changing categorization: Change the cognitive representation of outgroup members so it is no longer simply us vs. them
  • Promoting cooperation:

Question 41

Question
self schema is:
Answer
  • All answers are correct
  • Organize and guide the processing of self-related information that are part of the individual’s social experience.
  • Are derived from past experience.
  • Are cognitive generalizations about the self

Question 42

Question
Milgram's Study shows:
Answer
  • None of these things
  • All of these things
  • Authority pushes people to do things
  •  Punishment in learning

Question 43

Question
Sherif (1936) demonstrates:
Answer
  •  Convergence: Authority pushes people to do things
  • Cultural norms change overtime, but we are always influenced by norms
  • people look to others in uncertain circumstance, use other peopl’es information to secure reality
  • None of these answers are true

Question 44

Question
Moderators of normative influence include
Answer
  •  Self-confidence decrease  Task difficulty increase  Stereotypes…
  •  Group cohesion increase  Group size (but with a plateau of about 30-35% conformity at n = 3)  Social support for deviant position decrease
  • All of these answers are true
  • None of these answers are true

Question 45

Question
Individual – V – behaviour increases of compliance include:
Answer
  • All these answers are correct
  • Commitment
  • Authority
  • Liking
  • Reciprocity

Question 46

Question
Challenges and Criticisms (and rebuttals) of Evolution Psych include:
Answer
  • All answers are correct
  •  Naturalistic fallacy
  • Genetic determinism  No nurture
  • Reductionism

Question 47

Question
Intergroup Conflict involves:
Answer
  • B and C are correct
  • A Three primitives – sex, age, “race”
  •  B Us vs. them thinking
  • C Age and sex make sense from ev. perspective, but race does not. Race is not a factor in the EEA

Question 48

Question
 Race is not a factor in the EEA as:
Answer
  • All answers are true
  • If such patterns are correlated with physical features, these features would come to serve as cues in the coalition detection system (e.g., dress, gait, dialect)
  •  By-product of alliance/coalition detection
  • lived in bands and often formed coalitions within bands. Moreover, neighboring bands often came into contact/conflict. These alliances needed to be tracked.

Question 49

Question
 Petty & Cacioppo (1984) demonstrated:
Answer
  • Factors influencing attitude change in the Central route include:  Present participants with weak or strong arguments  Some participants were highly involved; others not  argument quality matters
  •  Factors influencing attitude change in the Peripheral route include:  Source expertise  Source attractiveness
  • Neither of these answers are correct: reverse them
  • These answers are correct

Question 50

Question
Implicit Measures of Attitude include:
Answer
  • Implicit Association Test (IAT)
  • Go/No-Go Association Task (GNAT)
  • Attitudes can also be inferred from observing behaviour.
  • All answers are correct

Question 51

Question
Can behaviour predicted by implicit and/or explicit attitudes?
Answer
  • Implicit attitudes are thought to reflect more automatic, less controlled evaluations
  • Explicit attitudes are thought to reflect conscious thoughts and considered reactions to the object.
  • Explicit attitudes predict controlled behaviour.
  • Implicit attitudes predict more spontaneous behaviour.
  • All answers are correct

Question 52

Question
 Moderators of mimicry:
Answer
  •  Affiliation goal (desire to connect) and attempting to reconnect  Group membership: ingroup > outgroup   Group cohesion increase  Power: powerless > powerful  Mood: good > bad 
  •  Self-confidence decrease  Task difficulty increase  Stereotypes…
  •  Group cohesion increase  Group size (but with a plateau of about 30-35% conformity at n = 3)  Social support for deviant position decrease
  • None of these answers

Question 53

Question
Assumptions of EP include:
Answer
  • Domain specific
  • Composed of collection of evolved psychological mechanisms (modules)
  • All these answers are true
  • Adaptations

Question 54

Question
Types of Attitude Explicit Measures are:
Answer
  • Guttman scales:
  • Likert scales
  • Semantic Differentials
  • All answers are correct

Question 55

Question
History of psychology includes the following movement
Answer
  • All these answers are true
  •  Cognitive revolution
  • Standard Social Science Model (SSSM) Blank slate written on by experience
  • Behaviorism

Question 56

Question
Attitude Properties include:
Answer
  • Complexity: The number of elements in the attitude.
  • Strength: Certainty or probability – how strong the attitude is.
  • Valence: Evaluation – whether the attitude object is viewed positively or negatively
  • All answers are correct

Question 57

Question
Actions of the self include:
Answer
  • Material and social self-seeking involve things, such as proving for our needs, and social things, such as being friendly, curious, and emulating others.
  • Spiritual self-seeking involves “every impulse towards psychic progress”, including intellectual, moral, and spiritual pursuits in the narrow sense.
  • All answers are true
  • Neither answer is true

Question 58

Question
Altruistic behavior
Answer
  • All these answers are correct
  • Kin selection
  • Mate choice
  •  Morality

Question 59

Question
The difference between Implicit and Explicit Attitudes are:
Answer
  • Explicit is self aware, reporting
  • Implicit involves subconscious, unaware, detailed
  • None of these answers are true
  • All of these answers are true

Question 60

Question
Social Influence
Answer
  •  Functions of conformity: informational, normative  Conformity also communicates something to others: agreeableness
  • Non-conformity also serves as a signal: uniqueness, independence
  • Both answers are true
  • None of these answers are true

Question 61

Question
The components of attitude are:
Answer
  • Affective component – liking or feelings about the attitude object.
  • Behavioural component – how we behave toward the attitude object.
  • Cognitive component – our thoughts and beliefs about the attitude object.
  • All answers are correct

Question 62

Question
Motives of the self include:
Answer
  • Self-improvement: Desire to improve a particular aspect of the self. Elicited by circumstances involve past threat or failure
  • Self-verification: Desire for consistency in self knowledge. Elicited by circumstances which involve failure.
  • Self-enhancement: Desire to achieve and maintain a positive sense of self. Elicited by circumstances involving both success and failure, especially when the particular self-view is important.
  • Self-assessment: Desire to have accurate information about the self. Elicited by circumstances involving both success and failure, especially when knowledge of one’s ability is uncertain.
  • All answers are true

Question 63

Question
Similarity beyond the actual self: Robins & Boldero (2003) argued that relationship formation involves more than similarity in actual selves. This means:
Answer
  • All these answers are correct
  • When a potential partner is like one’s ought self, we interpret this as “this person is how I should to be”.
  • When a potential partner is like one’s ideal self, we interpret this as “this person is how I would like to be”.
  • When one’s own and a potential partner’s actual selves are similar (or commensurable), we interpret this as “this person is like me”.

Question 64

Question
The limitations of Personality traits
Answer
  •  How valid are self-report assessments of personality
  •  Are traits or situations more useful for predicting behaviour
  • But much of our personality is highly contextualised, and shared a consensus but not an objective proof
  • All these answers are true

Question 65

Question
Mate choice involves:
Answer
  • Due to the Parental investment theory (Trivers, 1972): the sex that invests most in the offspring (usually the female) will be more selective
  • Ancestors who had an aversion to incest had greater reproductive fitness (produced more viable offspring)
  • Both answers are true
  • None of these answers are true

Question 66

Question
Constituents of the Self include:
Answer
  • The Ego - aspect of self that actively experiences the world. The stream of consciousness that gives us our sense of personal identity. “It is the sense of a sameness perceived by thought and predicated of things thought-about.”
  • The Me - aspect of self that is the object of attention.
  • Neither answer is true
  • Both answers are true

Question 67

Question
Ajzen’s (1991) Attitude Measure
Answer
  • Theory of Reasoned Action, Ajzen specified that attitudes should be assessed by taking the product of two factors
  • Behavioural Beliefs: Behavioural beliefs are the beliefs about the outcomes associated with the attitude object.
  • Outcome evaluations: Outcome Evaluations are the evaluations of the outcomes associated with the attitude object.
  • All answers are correct

Question 68

Question
Self-reference effects in encoding ...
Answer
  • Self-reference leads to deeper processing which is superior to semantic processing.
  • linear trend with self-reference processing requiring longer times
  • Superiority of “yes” words supports schema – “yes” fit with schema whereas “no” do not
  • All answers are true

Question 69

Question
self-regulatory factors and links of self-regulatory factors with psychological problems include:
Answer
  • All answers are correct
  • Promotion and prevention failure along with higher assessment are associated with higher levels of vulnerable narcissism
  • Assessment – the tendency to assess the self, others, and different options for action.
  • Locomotion – the tendency to move between state to state.

Question 70

Question
Regulatory fit effects include:
Answer
  • All answers are true
  • Form stronger intentions to conform to a persuasive message and are more persuaded by the message (Ceasario et al., 2004).
  • Feel more guilty about their past behaviour – a negative not positive event (Camancho et al., 2003).
  • Anticipate more enjoyment from the task

Question 71

Question
Self-Regulation is:
Answer
  • Self-regulation is the tendency to change the self with respect to some reference value or goal (may involve maintaining a present state or striving to achieve a desired future state
  • Self-regulatory models assume that individuals are motivated to approach desired end-states
  • Both answers are true
  • Neither answer is true

Question 72

Question
What is the relative strength of the self-enhancement and self-verification motives?
Answer
  • Both answers are correct
  • Neither answer is correct
  • Suggests that self-enhancement is stronger than self-verification motive.
  • Consistent with self-enhancement model, there was a preference for diagnostic information for positive central traits.

Question 73

Question
Principles of Self regulation include:
Answer
  • Regulatory Focus
  • Regulatory Reference
  • Regulatory Anticipation
  • All answers are true

Question 74

Question
Regulatory Focus Theory states:
Answer
  • In terms of a prevention-framed goal, success is viewed as the avoidance of an undesired end-state) and failure is experienced when one does not avoid it. 
  • For a promotion-framed goal, success is experienced as achieving a desired end-state and failure is experienced as a failure to achieve it.
  • Both answers are true
  • Neither answer is true

Question 75

Question
Three categories of the empirical self:
Answer
  • The spiritual self - all things that are not tangible that carry the designation my or mine - attributes or abilities, pleasure and pain. To think about ourselves as thinkers.
  • The social self - how we are regarded and recognized by others. We have as many social selves as people who recognize us.
  • The material self - all tangible objects, people, or places that carry the designation my or mine.
  • All answers are true

Question 76

Question
Interpersonal ties serve the function of:
Answer
  • Informational
  • Emotional
  • Instrumental
  • All of the above

Question 77

Question
Sternberg’s (1986) model of love states that love as 3 divisions, including:
Answer
  • Commitment – deciding about and maintaining love.
  • Passion – romance, physical, and sexual attraction.
  • Intimacy – feeling close, connected, and bonded.
  • All answers are correct

Question 78

Question
Natural selection involves:
Answer
  •  Differential reproduction  Some characteristics will lead to greater survival or reproduction
  •  Genetic inheritance  Characteristics must be passed down from parents to offspring through genes.
  •  Variation  For evolved biological changes to occur, variation in a characteristic must exist (otherwise there is no source of change).
  • All of these answers are correct

Question 79

Question
Common Life Narratives include:
Answer
  • The ‘Growth Story’ Personal development, or ‘becoming’ as a central theme
  • Redemption Sequences’ Significant episodes whose form goes from worse to better (overcoming adversity, undergoing a transformation etc)
  • Both these answers are true
  • Neither of these answers are true

Question 80

Question
Life History Theory involves:
Answer
  •  1) Resources vary in their availability over time and space
  •  2) Fitness maximisation is not a ‘one-shot game’  - long vs. short-term strategies
  •  3) Trade-offs must be made: Trade-offs are influenced by varying individual and environmental circumstances.  Thorough exploring increases likelihood of finding high quality resources, but delays reproduction
  • All answers are correct

Question 81

Question
Greatest impact of Social Context on Characteristic Adaptations and life narratives. Aspects of personality concerned with time, role, place, and identity are deeply grounded in social context and culture
Answer
  • goals, and values tend to be related to interdependence in collectivist cultures and with independence in individualistic cultures (Markus & Kitayama, 1991)
  •  e.g., timing and content of social roles varies across culture and social context  e.g., caregiver role construal… (Friedlmeier et al., 2008)
  •  e.g., personal narratives draw on the stories and metaphors that are salient in our culture
  • All of these answers are correct

Question 82

Question
Why does similarity lead to attraction?
Answer
  • Shared attitudes suggest mutual attraction. If I like someone and they like the same things as me, I can infer that they will like me too
  • when we learn that someone has the same attitudes and beliefs as us, it feels good as it suggests we have sound judgment.
  • Both answers are true
  • Neither answer is true

Question 83

Question
Behavioural (Quantitative) Genetics:  A set of statistical methods to partition variation in traits into:
Answer
  • Environmental variance (i.e., ‘nurture’): influence of experiences  Shared variance: environmental influences that are common to the individuals being studied  Nonshared variance: environmental influences that differ across the individuals being studied
  • Genetic variance or ‘heritability’ (i.e., ‘nature’): influence of genes inherited from biological parents
  • Neither answers are correct
  • Both answers are correct

Question 84

Question
Major criticisms of attachment theory
Answer
  • Caregiver responsiveness largely determines the quality of attachment relationships.
  • Working models tend to be stable across the lifecycle
  • A “deterministic” view of development.
  • All answers are correct

Question 85

Question
Interdependence – the basis of close relationship: the 3 types are...
Answer
  • Affective Individuals emotions are influenced by and influence their partner’s emotions.
  • Behavioural Individual’s behaviour is influenced by and influences their partner’s behaviour.
  • Cognitive Thinking about the self and partner as inextricably linked, as part of a whole rather than separate individuals.
  • All answers are correct

Question 86

Question
The role of reciprocity is:
Answer
  • Reciprocity via Rewards: We like others who reinforce our behaviour (at the beginning of relationships, costs are discounted … but not later on!).
  • Reciprocity via Good Moods: We infer liking from our mood states.
  • Direct reciprocity: We like others who like us . Social approval – being positively evaluated is intrinsically rewarding. Correlations between mutual liking are around .5 (which is substantial).
  • All answers are true

Question 87

Question
Characteristic Adaptations involve:
Answer
  • concerns an individuals particular life circumstances highly contextualised
  • Relatively stable goals, interpretations, and strategies, specified in relation to an individual’s particular life circumstances
  • Motivational, social-cognitive, and developmental adaptations, contextualized in time, place, and/or social role
  • All of these answers are correct

Question 88

Question
Selective Neutrality makes restrictive assumptions Balancing Selection may be more plausible as it considers:
Answer
  • Frequency-dependent selection: If all your neighbours are pursuing one strategy it may pay to pursue another, explain traits
  • Environmental heterogeneity (‘niches’)
  • Antagonistic pleiotropy (fitness trade-offs)
  • All of these answers are correct

Question 89

Question
Themes of The Big Five Personality traits:
Answer
  • Interpersonal responses
  • Emotional responses
  • Responses to achievement settings
  • All answers are true

Question 90

Question
Social context (Reciprocal effects of traits and social environments) includes:
Answer
  •  Parenting- Serious problems:  Causal ambiguity: (e.g., childhood introversion may elicit overprotective parenting)  Genetic confounding: (e.g., behaviour of the parents and the child may be influenced by common genetics)
  •  Birth order-Large multinational samples that control for these confounds find no relation between birth order and personality
  •  Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977)  Behaviour is learned via the examples of others, as well as via direct rewards/punishments. The ‘bobo doll’ study of aggression
  • All answers are correct

Question 91

Question
The next challenges in Behavioural (Quantitative) Genetics
Answer
  • Genetic variance or ‘heritability’ (i.e., ‘nature’): influence of genes inherited from biological parents
  • Environmental variance (i.e., ‘nurture’): influence of experiences  Shared variance: environmental influences that are common to the individuals being studied  Nonshared variance: environmental influences that differ across the individuals being studied
  • Neither answer is correct
  • All answers are correct

Question 92

Question
Fiske’s (1991) relational models
Answer
  • The market pricing model in which relationships are organized to a common scale of ratio values such as money.
  • The equality matching model in which relationships are organized with reference to their degree of balance.
  • The authority ranking model organizes relationships in asymmetrical terms. Individuals are hierarchically organized with higher-ranked individuals having the authority to organize, dominate etc.
  • The communal sharing model which organizes relationships in terms of collective belonging or sharing
  • All of the above

Question 93

Question
How are relationships described using relational models?
Answer
  • Fiske proposed that relationships based on one model would be rare and that all relationships to some degree would be described by the models.
  • Close relationships were described more by the communal sharing model than acquaintance relationships
  • Relationships with close friends were also described by the equality matching model, whereas equality matching and market pricing models described relationships with acquaintances.
  • All of the above

Question 94

Question
The exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968) states
Answer
  • We like people we meet often.
  • All answers are correct
  • Physical proximity is also important.
  • the sheer frequency of encountering a neutral or positive stimulus enhances its evaluation.

Question 95

Question
Models of emotions experienced in relationships and relationship maintenance. Several models focus on the role of perceived discrepancies as the important determinants of emotional outcomes in relationships. These social exchange models start with the premise that the distribution of rewards and costs between the partners in relationships are experienced as positive and negative feelings in the relationship, thus signaling how well we are “doing” relative to one’s partner. In addition, these emotions are proposed to be the determinants of whether the relationship is likely to continue or not.
Answer
  • Equity Theory (Walster, Walster, & Berscheid, 1978): According to this model, relationships are perceived to be fair if each persons’ outcomes are proportional to their contributions. Receiving less or more than one contributes results in lower satisfaction, although receiving less is worse than receiving more
  • Interdependence Theory Thibaut & Kelly (1959): Individuals are motivated to maximize rewards relative to costs in relationships. Satisfaction and attraction are defined in terms of expectations and outcomes. Individuals compare relationship outcomes to two standards – the comparison level (CL) and the comparison level for alternatives (CLalt). The comparison levels are determined either using others’ relationships or past relationships. The CL is the standard against which the attractiveness of the relationship is evaluated. When the level of outcomes exceeds this, the individual is satisfied with the relationship. The CLalt is the standard used to determine whether to stay or leave the relationship. If an alternative is not available (this may include no relationship), the individual may continue in the relationship.
  • Investment Model (Rusbult, 1980): The Investment Model is an extension of Interdependence Theory which includes relationship commitment and investments. Commitment is a function of high satisfaction, few alternatives, and high investment. Satisfaction is a function of rewards minus costs. Alternatives are the perceived desirability of other relationships.
  • Ideal Standards Model (Simpson, Fletcher, & Campbell, 2001): The ideal standards model is an extension of Interdependence theory and Self-discrepancy theory. Partner and relationship ideals are chronically-accessible knowledge structures that influence relationship judgments. These standards have three functions: evaluation, explanation, and regulation. Larger discrepancies between perceptions of a partner or the relationships with these standards results in lower evaluations of the partner and the relationship.
  • Attatchment Theory: This is a psychological, evolutionary, and ethological theory that provides a descriptive framework for understanding interpersonal relationships. Begins with the premise that infants have a need for a secure relationship with adult caregivers. The relevant infant behaviour is primarily a process of seeking proximity with an identified attachment figure.
  • All of these answers are correct

Question 96

Question
Personality will cease to predict behaviour in “strong situations”, characterized by…
Answer
  • Clear behavioural expectations
  • Individual ability to meet the demands of the situation
  • Incentives for compliance (or threats for non-compliance)
  • All answers are correct

Question 97

Question
Predictors of Violence include:
Answer
  • Moreover, both male and female physical violence was highest in couples where a male partner had high attachment avoidance paired with a female partner with high attachment anxiety.
  • Male violence predicted female violence.
  • Female attachment anxiety predicted violence.
  • All answers are correct

Question 98

Question
Limits to the attractiveness effect include:
Answer
  • Although romantic partners and male friends’ physical attractiveness are correlated (r =.48 & .38), female partners’ attractiveness doesn't correlate (r = .00) (Feingold, 1988).
  • People who conform to gender roles, care more about physical attractiveness (Andersen & Bem, 1981).
  • People prefer good companions, considerate, honest, affectionate, dependable, intelligent, kind, understanding, interesting, and loyal long-term mates (Buss & Barnes, 1986).
  • All of the answers are correct

Question 99

Question
Growth of pro-situation Theories
Answer
  • Mischel (1968) argued that behaviour on one occasion was unrelated to behaviour on a second occasion; therefore personality cannot exist
  • Shweder (1975): “The Conceptual Similarity Critique”  “How people classify” is mistaken as “how to classify people” Coherence of personality traits (discovered by factor analysis [week 10]) simply reflect judgements of conceptual similarity
  • The Fundamental Attribution Error” (also called “correspondance bias”; Gilbert & Malone, 1995). People mistakenly explain behaviour in terms of dispositional factors rather than to situational factors
  • All answers are correct

Question 100

Question
The Big Eight “DIAMONDS” model, Like a “big five” framework for situational characteristics includes:
Answer
  • All answers are correct
  • Duty
  • Mating
  • Sociality

Question 101

Question
Personality/ situation transactions work together to influence behaviour in combination in what ways?
Answer
  • 1. Situational selection:  Where traits predict entering a strong or consequential situation  e.g., extraversion and accidents
  • 2. Situational evocation:  Where traits impact on the dynamics of a particular situation  e.g., traits (e.g., low agreeableness)  relationship quality  divorce
  • 3. Situational perception:  Where traits shape appraisals of a situation, and thus an individual’s experience of that situation, e.g.,  agreeableness  opportunities to cooperate;  neuroticism  negativity and frustrations;  openness/intellect  intellectually engaging
  • All answers are correct

Question 102

Question
Life Narratives,the richest level of personality description, involve:
Answer
  •  Focus of content analyses:  Tone (Positive/optimistic/utopian, negative/pessimistic/dystopian)  Themes (Preoccupations with certain problems, goals etc)  Form (Stability? Change? Slow vs. rapid progress? Inertia?)
  • The unity and purpose of the self: A ‘personal myth’
  • Narrative Identity: The internal, dynamic life story that an individual constructs to make sense of his or her life
  • All answers are correct

Question 103

Question
Problems with Cattell’s 16 traits:
Answer
  •  Subjectivity:  Different people reach a different reduced set of Allport & Odbert’s descriptors
  •  (Poor) Replicability / Reproducibility:  Using Cattell’s 171 personality descriptors, many people failed to obtain his same 16 factors
  •  Redundancy:  Many of his factors correlated too highly for them to really be ‘different’ traits
  • All of these answers are correct

Question 104

Question
Other factors influencing attraction
Answer
  • religion
  • gender
  • age
  • All these answers are correct

Question 105

Question
Stability in personality:
Answer
  •  Personality has a developmental trajectory, but in relative terms remains fairly stable
  • Mean level stability is relatively low
  • All answers are correct
  •  Personality changes for everyone - development and ‘maturation’

Question 106

Question
Why does similarity lead to attraction?
Answer
  • None of these answers are correct
  • Both these answers are correct
  • When two people like each other and discover that they are similar, this represents a balanced state.
  • Unbalanced states involve negative affect.

Question 107

Question
Milgram’s (1962) wanted “to study behavior in a strong situation of deep consequence for the participants Milgram measured personality in (only) one of his ~20 studies… and found effects of personality:
Answer
  • All answers are correct
  •  Authoritarianism: more obedience from those who respect and value authority  Locus of control: more obedience from those with an external locus of control
  • that people are exposed to powerful treatments, the role of the individual differences among them are minimized”
  •  above average trait-behaviour effects emerge even in ‘strong situations’ in replicated studies.

Question 108

Question
Consistency of behaviour proving the consistency of personality involved:
Answer
  •  Fleeson (2001): Individuals vary over time and space in their personality state expressions……but also are highly stable:
  •  Average levels of personality states are well predicted by personality trait questionnaires
  •  Techniques for assessing behaviours/experiences multiple times per day for several days or weeks
  • All answers are correct

Question 109

Question
What is personality?
Answer
  • • Regularities in behaviour and experience
  •  A person’s typical mode of response
  • Our identity and our reputation
  • There is no one definition

Question 110

Question
Personality involves:
Answer
  • Dispositional traits
  • Life Narratives
  • Characteristic Adaptions
  • All of these answers are true

Question 111

Question
 Allport and Odbert (1936) produced the theory of:
Answer
  • Important characteristics will, over human history, be coded in language.  Collected an exhaustive list of personality descriptors – about 18,000 terms (e.g., sociable, aggressive…)
  • Personality traits are probabilistic descriptions of regularities in behaviour and experience
  • Factor Analysis A statistical method that reduces several correlated variables to much fewer composite variables or factors…
  • None of these answers are correct

Question 112

Question
Cattell’s Method allows us to:
Answer
  • a personality system or taxonomy system
  •  describing the structure of personality
  •  Organizing the universe of trait descriptors
  • All these answers are correct:

Question 113

Question
Sherman et al., 2015 study states personality and situations independently predicted state expressions and to a similar extent – no person x situation interaction. A potential problem with Sherman et al’s (2015) study…
Answer
  •  Moderate trait-situation correlations, e.g.,  Neuroticism  situations high in Negativity,  Extraversion  situations high in Sociality,  Conscientiousness  situations high in Duty
  •  Correlated predictors can make it harder to detect interactions
  • Breil & Vazire, 2017  Possible role of situation perception, inflating trait-situation correlations
  • All answers are correct

Question 114

Question
Distal causes of personality are:
Answer
  •  Genetics and evolutionary history
  •  Upbringing, parenting
  •  Social context and culture
  • All answers are correct

Question 115

Question
Behavioural (Quantitative) Genetics designs include:
Answer
  • 1. Family studies: siblings vs. more distant relatives
  • 2. Twin studies: identical vs. fraternal twins
  • 3. Adoption studies: siblings raised together vs. apart
  • All of these answers are correct

Question 116

Question
The Rise of Situationism has Two key claims:
Answer
  • Personality a weak predictor of behaviour (r ~ .30).
  • Behaviour varies considerably over situations.
  • Both answer is correct
  • Neither answer is correct
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