Middle School Science Praxis

Middle School Science Praxis II

Understand the methods of scientific inquiry Scientific Method:1. Pose a Question2. Form a Hypothesis3. Test4. Observe/Record Data5. Form a Conclusion (comparing data, making judgements)6. Gather Additional Data7. Write ReportReports should have:-Title-Abstract-Purpose and Hypothesis-Description of Experiment to Prove/Disprove Hypothesis-Supporting Data-Observations-Conclusions

Understand:-Independent Variables-Dependent Variables-Control Variables-Sources of Error

The Nature of Science

The Nature of Scientific Knowledge:-It is subject to change-It is based on evidence-It is based on evidence that can be reproduced

The Nature of Scientific Knowledge:-It is subject to change-

The Common Units of Measurement:Deci: prefix for 1/10th of a unitCenti: prefix for 1/100th of a unitMilli: prefix for 1/1000th of a unitDeca: prefix for 10 times a unitHecto: prefix for 100 times a unitKilo: prefix for 1000 times a unitKnow the Common Units of Measurement for:-Length-Time-Mass-Volume-Energy-Pressure-Force

Organization and Presentation

Understand Scientific Notation and Significant Digits!Data can be Presented and Organized with:-Tables-Charts-GraphsBasic Error Analysis: Precision Accuracy Know the differences between these!

Be Able to Calculate Averages:-Mean-Median-ModeInterpret and Draw Conclusions from Data: Trends in the data Relationships between variables Predictions based on data Drawing conclusions based on evidence

Safety in the Lab

Be familiar with procedures for: Safe Storage Safe Preparation Proper and Safe Disposal  Use of Equipment like Fume Hood Use of Safety Equipment: Eyewash Stations and Safety Showers Appropriate Behavior and Apparel Minor Burns and Injuries Mishaps, Fires, and Chemical Spills  Evacuation 

Know How to Use Standard Equipment: Thermometers Microscopes Barometers Graduated Cylinders Bunsen Burners Balances pH Meters

Major Historical Contributions 

Understand How Major Concepts Developed Over Time: Atomic Model Genetics Plate Tectonics 

Principles of Matter and Energy

Structures and Properties of Matter:Soldis, liquids, gases, and plasmasElements, atoms, compounds, molecules, and mixturesOccurrence and abundance of elements and their isotopesForms of Kinetic and Potential Energy:-Thermal Energy-Chemical Energy-Radiant Energy-Mechanical Energy

Relationships Between Energy and Matter: Conservation of Energy (First Law of Thermodynamics) Entropy Changes (Second Law of Thermodynamics) Conservation of Matter in Chemical Systems Energy Transformations Chemical and Physical Property Changes 1st Law of Thermodynamics: Mechanical and internal energy are conserved2nd Law of Thermodynamics: Heat only flows from hot to cold until it reaches equilibrium3rd Law of Thermodynamics: Absolute zero temperature can never be reached

Measurement Scales

Measurement of Temperature: Celsius Fahrenheit  Kelvin Know how to compare and convert these scales!Kelvin Scale: Based on temperatures and volumes of gases

Methods of Heat Transfer: Convection Radiation Conduction Measurement of Thermal Energy: Specific Heat Capacity Joules

Applying Energy and Matter Relationships

Understand the Role of Energy and Matter in: Trophic levels Matter cycle/energy flow in ecosystems Convection currents in atmosphere, ocean, and mantle of the Earth Conservation of mass in the rock cycle Nitrogen cycle Chemical and physical changes in rocks Solar radiation's impact on Earth and life Photosynthesis Cellular respiration Energy transformations in living systems

Basic Structure of the Atom

Atomic Model Atomic Structure: Electrons, protons, neutrons Atomic Number  Atomic Mass Ions Electron Arrangements

Radioactivity: Radioisotopes Radioactive Decay Half-Life Fusion Fission Application of Radioactivity: Carbon Dating Evidence for Evolution Medical Imaging Radioactive Decay: The most common nuclear reaction.  This means the nucleus is unstable.  

The Physical Sciences

Understand Mechanics: Speed Velocity Acceleration Momentum Friction Work, energy, and power Mass, weight, and gravity Newton's First Law of InertiaNewton's Second Law (F=MA or Force=Mass times Acceleration) This is also known as "work", action caused by a force. Newton's Third Law: Equal and opposite action-reactionEnergy: The ability to do workMomentum=mass x velocity Understand Simple Machines 

Characteristics of Gravitation: Gravitational Attraction Acceleration due to Gravity Mass Distance Distinguish Between Mass and Weight! Analyze Motion and Forces in Problems that Involve:-Inclined Planes-Collisions-Projectile Motion-Periodic Motion-Pendulums-Springs-Planetary Objects 

Physical Properties

Physical Properties of Fluids: Buoyancy Density Pressure Electrical Nature of Materials: Electric Charges Electrostatic Attraction and Repulsion Conductivity, Conductors, and Insulators  Analyze Electric Circuits: DC and AC Current Current, Resistance, Voltage, and Power Ohm's Law

Voltage Sources: Batteries Generators Magnetic Fields and Forces: Magnetic Poles Attractive and Repulsive Forces Electromagnets Ohm's Law: Voltage Difference (V)=Current (I) x Resistance (R)Voltmeter: Measures the Potential Energy (PE) in an electric circuit.  Ammeter: Measures current on a circuit.  Resistors: Regulate volume-measured in Ohms.  

Waves and Light

Characteristics of Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum: Nature of Light Visible Spectrum and Color Ultraviolet, Infrared, Microwave, and Gamma Rays Basic Characteristics and Types of Waves: Transverse and Longitudinal Waves Frequency Amplitude Wavelength Speed and Intensity Basic Wave Phenomena: Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction, and Dispersion Absorption and Transmission Interference, Scattering, and Polarization Doppler Effect

Basic Sound Phenomena: Pitch/Frequency relationship to Loudness/Intensity Sound-Wave Production, Air Vibrations, and Resonance  Basic Optics: Mirrors Lenses (Human eye, Microscopes, Telescopes) Prisms Fiber Optics Polarized Light: Vibrations are confined to a single plane. Visible Light can be polarized by electric and magnetic fields.Visible Light: Part of the electrostatic spectrum.  Contains photons.  (Photons can be both waves and particles) 

Waves

Longitudinal Waves (Sound):-The disturbance is parallel to the direction of motion, resulting in a spiral look. (Like a slinky)Transverse Waves (Water):-The disturbance is perpendicular to the direction of motion, making up and down swells.  Pitch: The frequency of a sound wave.  Wave Frequency:-Measured in Hertz-1 hertz=1/seconds 

Loudness: The amplitude of the sound wave.  The Period of a Wave is the time between disturbances.  

The Periodic Table

Be Familiar with the Periodic Table Be Able to Predict the Properties (physical and chemical) of Elements Organization of Periodic Table: Arranged in columns and rows Groups/Families, periods Includes symbol, atomic number, and atomic mass Trends in chemical reactivity can be seen based on the position of the elements  Metallic and Non-metallic elements Noble Gases

Trends in the Physical Properties on the Periodic Table: Atomic Radius Ionization Energy

Chemical Bonds

Covalent Bonding Ionic Bonding Hydrogen Bonding Chemical Compounds: Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds with Two Elements Acids and Bases

Interpret Chemical Formulas: Describe formulas in terms of mols and atoms Percent composition Empirical and Molecular formulas Electron Dot Structure formulas Know how to Balance Chemical Formulas: Balance simple chemical reactions Stoichiometric calculations with balanced equations Use Chemical Formulas to Identify and Describe Simple Chemical Reactions: Combustion Oxidization (Rusting) Neutralization   Single/Double Replacement

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter: Particles are in constant motion Speed and energy of gas particles are related to temperature.  Ideal Gas Laws: Charles' Law: Volume is proportional to Energy Boyle's Law: Pressure is inversely proportional to Volume  Phase Changes: Melting/Freezing Vaporization/Condensation  Sublimation Heating/Cooling Curves

States of Matter and Changes 

Energy Relationships: Endothermic Reactions Exothermic Reactions Factors that Affect Reaction Rate: Concentration Temperature Pressure Catalysts/Enzymes 

More Chemistry

Acid-Base Chemistry: Know the chemical and physical properties of acids and bases pH scale Neutralization Buffers Solutions and Solubility Diluted and Concentrated Saturated, Unsaturated, and Supersaturated  Solvent and Solute  Identify different solutions Concentrations of solutions in terms of molarity

Factors Affecting the Dissolving Process and Solubility of Substances:  Effect of temperature and particle size on dissolving Effect of temperature on solubility Polar vs. Nonpolar Solvents and Solutes: Like dissolves like Ionic compounds dissociate into ions when in a solution (Electrolytes)

Life Sciences

The Structure and Function of Cell Membranes: Passive/Active Transport Osmosis Know the Structure and Function of All Cell Organelles Levels of Organization: Cells Tissues Organs Organ Systems Major Cell Types:-Muscle-Nerve-Epithelial 

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes Basic Cell Reproduction: Cell Cycle Mitosis Meiosis Cytokinesis Basic Biochemistry of Life:-Cellular Respiration -Photosynthesis-Biological Molecules: DNA, Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Enzymes

Genetics 

DNA Structure Replication, Transcription, and Translation Dominant and Recessive Alleles Mendelian Inheritance: Genotype Phenotype Punnett Squares

Mutations, Chromosomal Abnormalities, and Common Genetic Disorders Genetic Variation Processes: Mutation Sexual Recombination 

Taxonomy 

Father of Taxonomy: Carolus Linneaus Binomial Nomenclature: Modern Taxonomy uses this classification system.  Every species has a two part name (genus and species).  King  (Kingdom)Phillip  (Phylum)Should  (Subphylum)Cook  (Class)Our  (Order)Family  (Family)Good  (Genus)Spaghetti  (Species)There are 5 Kingdoms:1. Animalia2. Monera3. Protista4. Fungi5. Plantae 

Kingdom Protista: (First lifeforms on Earth)-Eukaryotic-Unicellular-Some can photosynthesize -Some are consumers Kingdom Monera: (Algae and bacteria)-Prokaryotic-Unicellular-No nucleus Kingdom Fungi: -Eukaryotic-Multicellular-Absorption consumers

Evolution and Ecology

Mechanisms of Evolution: Natural Selection Punctuated Equilibrium Isolation Mechanisms and SpeciationDarwin's 4 Principles:1. Species vary in genetics2. Variations sometimes stem from genetics3. More individuals are produced than will survive4. Certain traits allow for better survival Evidence Supporting Evolution: Fossil Records Comparative Genetics Homologous Structures Comparative Anatomy Embryology Molecular Biology Observed Changes

Key Aspects of Ecology:Population Dynamics-Growth Curves-Carrying Capacity-Behavior such as Territoriality-Mating Systems-Social SystemsCommunity Ecology-Niche-Succession-Species Diversity-Interspecific Relationships (Predator-Prey, Parasitism) 

Life Science

5 Feeding Relationships:1. Parasitism2. Commensalism3. Mutualism (symbiosis)4. Competition5. Predation 

4 Important Behaviors in Organisms:1. Competitiveness2. Instinctiveness 3. Territoriality 4. Mating 

Cell Theory

Robert Hooke: Discovered cell walls in 1665 using a cork.Virchow: Concluded all cells come from pre-existing cells in 1858.

Cell Theory: All living this are composed of 1 or more cells.Modern Cell Theory:  Energy flow occurs in all cells Cells contain DNA passed down They grow They adapt All organisms share Carbon in common!

Ecosystems

Biomes:1. Marine2. Tropical Rainforest3. Savana4. Desert5. Temperate Deciduous Forest6. Taiga7. Tundra8. Polar/Permafrost Stability and Disturbances-Glaciation-Global Warming EffectsEvidence of Continental Glaciation:1. Abrasive Grooves2. Boulders from North found in South3. Cirques Present (Valleys formed by glaciers) 

Theories of Glaciation:-Plate Tectonics-Earth's Orbit-The Changes in Axis Angle Types of Glaciers:-Valley Glaciers (Sharp, peaked mountains)-Continental Glaciers (Smooth mountains) Energy Flow-Trophic Levels-Food WebsBiogeochemical Cycles -Water Cycle-Nitrogen Cycle-Carbon Cycle-Biotic/Abiotic InteractionsThe Water Cycle: Evaporation Condensation Precipitation Runoff

Earth and Space Sciences

Know the Characteristics of Rocks and Their Formation Processes: Igneous  Metamorphic Sedimentary   Metamorphic Rocks: Are either Unfoliated (marbled, banded) or Foliated (compressed, striped).  They are made under great pressures, and at high temperatures. Igneous Rocks: Known for their texture, composition, and the way they form.  Can be Intrusive (below the Earth's surface) or Extrusive (at the surface).  Sedimentary Rocks: Made first by compaction, then cementation, and then lithification (sediments transformed into solid rocks).  

Erosion and Deposition Agents of Erosion Chemical and Physical (Mechanical) Weathering Porosity and Permeability  Runoff and Infiltration  Characteristics of Soil: Types of Soil Soil Profile

Know the Characteristics of Minerals and Their Formation Processes: Classes of Minerals Classes of Crystals Hardness Mineral Type Determined By:1. Chemical Composition2. Crystal Structure Polymorphs: 2 or more minerals with the same chemical composition but different crystalline structures.  Silicate is the most abundant mineral.  

Earth Science

Earth's Layers: Lithosphere Mantle Core Earth's Shape and SizeGeographical Features: Mountains Plateaus Mid-Ocean Ridges Earth's Magnetic Field

Plate Tectonics Theory and Evidence to Support: Folding and Faulting Continental Drift Magnetic Reversals Characteristics of Volcanos:Types of Volcanos-Shield Volcanos (Quiet, Largest Mountains)-Cinder Cone Volcanos (Explosive, Small)-Composite Volcanos (Built by Lava and Ash of Cinder Cone) Lava Eruptions Characteristics of Earthquakes: Epicenters Faults Tsunamis  Seismic Waves and Triangulation

Tectonics 

Tectonic Plates: Blocks of Earth's rigid crust on the upper mantle (Lithosphere)Subduction: When a dense plate collides with a less dense plate and slides under the lighter one, plunging into the mantle.  (Subduction zones often seen on sea floor as a trench)Rifting: Boundaries form between spreading plates as the crust is pushed apart.  Plate Boundaries: Plates that interact through spreading, pressing, and sliding.  (Many volcanos, mountain ranges, and earthquake zones are found on plate boundaries.)

Faults: Fractures in the surface crust that are created by tension or compression.  Support of Plate Tectonic Theory: Mesosaur Fossils found in East South America and South Africa Rocks in East Brazil found in North West Africa Appalachian Mountains in US match the ranges in Europe  Alfred Wegener: In 1915 he advanced the continental drift theory by suggesting that a Pangea existed 200 million years ago.  

Historical Geography

Principles of UniformitarianismBasic Principles of Stratigraphy (classifying rocks by observing their superposition)Law of SuperpositionRelative and Absolute Time: Index Fossils Radioactive Dating Absolute Dating: Radioactivity to accurately determine ages 

Geologic Time Scale: Eons (Most recent is Phanerozoic Eon-beginning of life) Eras (Paleozoic-ancient life, Mesozoic-middle life, Cenozoic-recent life) Periods (Cambrian-Paleozoic Era, Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous-Mesozoic Era, Tertiary and Quartenary-Cenozoic Era)  End of an Era:1. Uplifting of Crust2. Extinction of Dominant Plants/Animals3. Appearance of New LifeImportant Events In Earth's Geologic History: Mass Extinctions Cambrian Explosion Ice Ages Meteor Impacts 

Earth's Bodies of Water

Geographic Location of Oceans and SeasTides, Waves, and CurrentsEstuaries and Barrier IslandsIsland, Reef, and Coral FormationPolar Ice Caps, Icebergs, and GlaciersLakes, Ponds, Streams, Rivers, and River DeltasGroundwater, Water Table, Wells, and Aquifers 

Properties of Water that Affect Earth's Systems: Density changes when frozen (ice floats on water) High high capacity Polar solvent Hydrogen bonding World Weather Influenced By: Ocean surface currents in upper layerSurface Currents-Caused by winds (winds classified by temperature)Ocean Currents-Caused by differences in density Waves-Caused mainly by windsOcean Movement:-Wind-The Sun's heat energy-Earth's rotation-Moon's gravitational pull-Underwater Earthquakes 

Basic Meteorology

The SUN: Core-Place of inner fusion Photosphere-Surface, sun spots Chromosphere-Hydrogen gas causes it to be red, solar flares common Corona- Transparent, only visible during an eclipse Solar Flares: Excited protons and electrons shoot out from the sun.  When they reach Earth they can interfere with radio and magnetic fields.  Perihelion: When the Earth is closest to Sun (January)Aphelion: When the Earth is farthest from the Sun (July)

Galaxies: A vast collection of starsStars must have a 7% greater mass than the SunPlanets/Brown Dwarf: Bodies with a mass less than 7% of SunStar Life:1. Mass of gas and dust (Nebula)2. Main Sequence Star3. Red Giant Star4. Nova Star 5. White Dwarf, Neutron (after supernova), or Black Hole Normal Star life requires HEAT and ENERGY.  This comes from the conversion of hydrogen into helium.   Brightness of Star Measured Through:-Magnitude (how bright the star appears to humans)-Luminosity (intrinsic brightness radiated by star per second, in watts)

Astronomy 

3 Ways Astronomers Measure Distance in Space:1. Astronomical Unit (AU)-distance between Earth and Sun (150x10^6 km)2. Light Year (LY)-9.5x10^12 km-63,000 AUs3.  Parsec (PC)-3.62 LYsSpectrograph: Photographs the sunSpectroscope: Measures temperature, spectra, pressures, and star movement

Hubble Telescope: Single-reflector mirrorRadio Telescope: Collects invisible radio waves created by the sun and stars.Refracting Telescope: Invented by Galileo.  Lenses bend light and focus it. Reflecting Telescope: Invented by Sir Isaac Newton.  Mirrors gather light onto a curved mirror, focusing small image. 

Space Science

Terrestrial Planets: Have thin atmospheresJovian Planets: Gaseous, thick, atmospheresPlanet's Ability to Retain Atmosphere Depends on:-Mass-TemperatureEarth's Galaxy: Spiral, disc-shaped galaxy in the Milky WayElliptical Galaxy: Contains little gas/dust, millions/trillions of starsIrregular Galaxy: No real structure, early stagesOscillating Universe Model:-Universe will expand and contract-New big bang will happen again

The Big Bang: 20 billion years ago-explosion formed by helium and hydrogen.2 Hypothesis of Solar System Origin:*Condensation Hypothesis-Began with rotating clouds of dust/gas-Condensed in the middle, forming the Sun-Smaller clouds formed the planets-Widely accepted hypothesis*Tidal Hypothesis-Near collision of Sun and large star-Gravity pulled the Sun's hot gases out-Few support this hypothesisBlack Hole: Star with condensed matter and gravity so intense that nothing escapes it, even light.Tilt of Earth's Axis: 23.45 degrees-reason for 4 seasons

Astronomy Terms

Meteoroid: Particles of rock and metalMeteor: Meteoroid burning in the Earth's atmosphereMeteorites: Meteors that strike the surfaceAsteroids: Rocks generally found between Mars and JupiterComets: Frozen gases, cosmic dust, and rocky particles-Nucleus-Coma-Tail (always points away from the sun)Halley's Comet: Returns every 75-76 years

Mercury: Craters, rocks (Terrestrial)Venus: Slow rotation, rotates opposite way, heavy cloud cover (Terrestrial)Mars: Craters, active/extinct volcanoes, red surface from iron oxide, atmosphere similar to Earth, polar regions and ice caps. (Terrestrial)Jupiter: Largest, 16 moons, strong magnetic field, gaseous, Great Red Spot (Jovian)Saturn: 2nd largest, rings of ice/rock/dust, 20 satellites (Jovian)Uranus: 10 dark rings, 15 satellites (Jovian)Neptune: 3 rings, 2 satellites (Jovian)Pluto: Reconsidered as not a planet, rocky, 1 satellite, 250 year revolution around Sun

Moon and Sun

Time between each full moon: 29.53 days The Moon orbits Earth every 27 daysFull Moon, Waning Gibbous, Third Quarter, Waning Crescent, New, Waxing Crescent, First Quarter, Waxing Gibbous, FullWinter Solstice: When the Sun is farthest from Earth's equator.  This occurs in December and the Southern Hemisphere leans towards the Sun.Summer Solstice: When the Sun is farthest from Earth's equator.  This occurs in June and the Northern Hemisphere leans towards the Sun.  

Neap Tides: Weak tides due to the position of the Sun and Moon.  They are positioned at a 90 degree angle around Earth.Tidal Bulge: Large tides due to the position of the Sun and Moon.  They are positioned directly across from one another.