Chapter 4-Pressure Groups

Pluralism- theory which suggests that political power in a society does not simply rest with the electorate or with the governing elite but is distributed amongst a number of groups representing widely different interests within society.  Elitism- a theory which suggests that political power in a society rests with a small group who gain power through wealth, family status or intellectual superiority. Pressure groups- An organised interest group in which members sold similar beliefs and actively pursue ways to influence government. Unlike political parties, which seek to win control of government, pressure groups are interested in influencing those who determine policy.Pressure groups vary in size, wealth and influence. They operate at different levels of government- state, federal and local and seek to bring their influence to bear on all 3 branches of government. 

Pressure Groups.

Types of pressure groups; Institutional pressure groups;They seek to represent other organisations and group. So business and trade groups e.g. American Business Conference, the National Association of Manufacturers and the National Automobile Dealers Association. Also, the US Chamber of Commerce which represents thousands of different businesses across the nation and labour unions most representing a trade e.g. United Auto Workers representing truck drivers. There are also institutional groups representing the interests of America's agriculture such as the American Farm Bureau Federation.They include professional pressure groups such as American Medical Association. Then the intergovernmental pressure groups such as the National Governors Conference. 

Membership pressure groups;They seek to represent individual American  rather than organisations and groups. Americans are more likely to join social, charitable, civic, political and religious groups. They may join single issue groups such as the American Rifle Association (NRA), Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), National Abortion and Reproduction Rights Action League (NARAL). They may join a group that represents individuals with common gender, ethnic etc background e.g. The National American Association for Colored People (NAACP) or National Organisation for Women (NOW). They may join a public interest group such as Friends of the Earth. Think Tanks are an important type as they conduct research write reports and articles for publication; most having a particular ideological stance. Liberals- Institute for Policy Studies and the Brooking Institution.Conservatives- Heritage Foundation and American Enterprise Institute. 

Functions of pressure groups;1) Representation; Pressure groups perform a representative function, they're meant to represent the view and articulate grievances of the US citizens. They're an important link between public and politician-providing a channel of easy access through which ordinary citizens can voice their opinions. Through a pressure groups everyone can have their views represented in all three branches of government at the federal, state and local levels.2) Citizen participation;They increase the opportunity for ordinary citizens to participate in decision-making processes between elections. Political participation is seen a virtue-when all's said and done election day is only once a year. Pressure groups offer an opportunity to participate in a specific policy area. 3) Public education;Pressure groups educate public opinion, they work people of the possible dangers if an issues isn't addressed as well as the likely effects of decision making by the government. 

4) Agenda building;Pressure groups perform the function of agenda building-they attempt to influence the agendas of political parties, legislators and bureaucrats to give priority to their members interests. They attempt to bring together parts of society to work together and achieve a common interest. E.g. given by Berry and Wilcox is of the manufacturers and distributors of CD's and computer software working together to get governments to pay attention to the problem of piracy. Due to this China promised to close down factories that were illegally duplicating American goods. 5) Programme monitoring;They scrutinise and hold government to account in the implementation of policies, to try to ensure promises are fulfilled, policies delivered and regulations enforced. After the passage of Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act in 2002- the Campaign Finance Institute commissioned a set of studies by scholars on the law's impact on the funding of campaigns. As a result, pressure groups will bring cases to the state a=and federal courts asking the judicial branch to monitor the effects of legislation. 

Reasons for joining;1) Material benefits;They believe that something worthwhile will result from the groups activities. Berry and Wilcox define material benefits as 'the tangible rewards that individuals or companies get in return for their donations' to a particular pressure group. Material benefits may be information-some get newspapers or magazine (Sierra Club sends of Sierra magazine). NRA give people free books. They are also audio and video clips. There may be service benefits available to members e.g. helping mayors which visiting Washington DC. AARP offer health insurance. Lastly, changes in policy gives benefits to its members.2) Purposive benefits;To be part of a movement-to try and make their society a better place. In joining Amnesty International one has altruistic aims. Some pressure groups are more likely to attract members from the more highly education and wealthy members to get them a feel good factor.

3) Solidarity benefits;A solidarity benefit is a social benefit that is brought fro interacting with like minded people. They centre their activities around local meetings their members will attend. In Virginia you could join a local chapter e.g. Virginia Beach and in mid-September you could attend annual Eastern Shore Birding and Wildlife Festival. 

Method used;1) Electioneering and endorsement;The reforms limited the amount that any pressure group could give to a candidate in a federal election, the reforms recommended setting up a Political Action Committees (PACS) that could make such donations. A PAC is an organisation whose purpose is to raise and give campaign funds to candidates for political office.The role of PACS from 06- The mid-term elections were the first to be run under the McCain-Feingold law. It was the most expensive to date. Sabbato found that PAC spending exceeded $1 billion for the first time ever in a cycle. There were 400 new PACS in the first 4 years following the law. The biggest PAC contributor in 2010 cycle was the National Association of Realtors who donated $3.8 million to federal candidates. However what pressure groups get for this money is questioned. Candidate endorsement;Pressure groups support/oppose presidential and congressional candidate  on the basis of the candidates positions on the policy areas of concern. 2012 NARAL endorsed Obama. Every 2 years the League of Conservation Voters publish the dirty dozen list-candidates worst on environmental consideration.

2) Lobbying;An attempt to exert influence on the policy-making, legislative or judicial processes by individuals or organised groups. Legislatures and bureaucrats are people and have demands on their time and resources, they must appear knowledge so pressure groups are a good source of information. Pressure groups maintain offices in Washington DC (K Street) and elsewhere allowing them to be on hand to lobby members of federal, state and local governments. Pressure groups also provide legislators with voting cues, Liberal Democrats look to such groups as the NAACP to provide reassurance that they're taking the right stand on a particular issue. Pressure groups such as ADA/ACU publish rating of how much legislatures supported the policy positions in line with the views of that group.3)Publicity;Pressure groups launch public relations campaigns to educate people. e.g. TV adverts. AARP-Bush wanted to reform Social Security to create private retirement accounts- TV ads showed demolition crew responding to clogged kitchen by knocking down the house. Public Policy journals are used for the placement of advertisements. Roadside hoardings, bumper stickers and badges also. 

4) Organising grassroots activities;Such may include the organisation of a postal blitz on Congress, the White House or a government department. However, they don't pay much attention to letters/postcards and there are firms that exist to orchestrate mail, e-mail or telephone blitzes. Marches and demonstrations are aimed at states and federal court houses- pavement outside the SC building in Washington DC is filled with people from pressure groups representing both sides of the argument. Some may turn to violence e.g. bombing of federal government building in Oklahoma in 95 was linked to militia groups.

Impact on issues;1) Environmental protection; Towards the end of the 19th century the matter on environmental conservation became important so the SIERRA CLUB was formed, followed by NATIONAL WILDLIFE FEDERATION. Such groups have been behind the push towards stricter laws for the environment. 2) Women's rights;Groups such as the LEAGUE OF WOMEN VOTERS and the NATIONAL ORGANISATION FOR WOMEN pushed the passage of an Equal Right Amendment 70s-80s (failed). They've been very active e.g. debate over attempting to root out sexual harassment in the workplace. EMILY'S LIST supports female democratic candidates early in the electoral process so they'll be able to demonstrate their ability t raise money and win seats.

3) Gun Control; The NRA is one of the most powerful pressure groups with 3 million members dedicated on teaching Americans how to use guns. It seeks to uphold the strict interpretation on the 2nd amendment to keep and bear arms. Also opposes tougher gun controls-opposed Brady Bill and the assault weapons ban. Involved in the Sandy Hook debate. 4) Abortion rights;Since the Roe v.Wade decision pro-choice groups have fought to preserve the constitutional right of women to have an abortion while the pro-life fought to have it narrowed and overturned.  Most recently- partial birth abortions Clinton vetoed it in 96-97, Bush signed it and SC upheld it. 

Impact on government;Congress;Pressure groups seek to influence the way House and Senate. 1) They make direct contact with members as well as senior members of staff. 2) They make contact with the relevant congressional committees-standing committees have significant power to amend legislation which they consider during the legislative process. As membership of committees is small 16 senate 40 house, lobbyist find it easy to build a close working relationship with the members.  Members contact lobbyist for information.3) They attempt to organise constituents to write, telephone or visit their member of congress to express their support or opposition to a certain policy.4) Pressure groups publicise the voting records of House and Senate members and at election time they endorse supportive/non-supportive incumbents by fundraising and media advertising.

Executive;Pressure groups seek to maintain strong ties with relevant executive departments, agencies and regulatory commissions. Problems can emerge when regulatory bodies are though to have too cosy a relationship with the particular group they are meant to be regulating. Some pressure groups will find themselves courted by the White House for their support. 05 Bush's political director in the White House had frequent contacts with Christian Right groups.Judiciary;Pressure Groups take a lively interest in the nomination the president makes to the federal courts especially those to the US SC. The American Bar Association evaluates the professional qualifications if nominees and their evaluation can play a significant role in the confirmation process by Senate. Pressure Groups can amicus curiae-present their views to the court in writing before an oral argument e.g. American Civil Liberties Union in 05 in which the Court ruled that displaying the 10 commandments in the courthouse was unconstitutional

Regulations of pressure groups;It’s difficult to regulate anything that concerns freedom of speech and expression. Earlier attempts at lobbying reform: Federal regulation of lobbying act 1964-Congress started to regulate activities of pressure groups. This act required lobbyists to register with the clerk of HOR and secretary of Senate if they raised money ‘to be used principally to aid the passage or deficit of any legislation by Congress of the US’ but its provisions were ignored. 30 years later the Lobby disclosure bill failed to make it on the statute book because of powerful lobbyists. Largely due to the Watergate affair and the subsequent passage of campaign finance reform of the 70’s which gave a rise to PACs. There was public unrest over buying influence in congress as a consequence of a congressional scandal known as ‘Abscam’-the attempts of influential Arab interests to bride members of congress. In the 90’s congress passed legislation by expanding the definition of what qualified as pressure group +making more groups register. Also restrictions on lobbyists by banning gifts to members of congress including wining and dining and paying the honoraria (writing/speaking fees paid by pressure groups to members of congress). 

Honest Leadership and Open Gov. Act 07: Dems had control of both houses of Congress in Jan 07 for the 1st time in 12 years = within 7 months Bush signed the HL&OG into Law w/bipartisan support, HOR by 411-8 votes, Senate by 83-14. Some major provisions of this legislative areHonest Leadership and Open Gov. Act 07: Dems had control of both houses of Congress in Jan 07 for the 1st time in 12 years = within 7 months Bush signed the HL&OG into Law w/bipartisan support, HOR by 411-8 votes, Senate by 83-14. Some major provisions of this legislative are: Closing the revolving door: Prohibits senators from gaining undue lobbying access by increasing the ‘cooling off period’ from 1-2 years before they can lobby congress. Prohibits cabinet officers/senior executive branch personnel from lobbying the department/agency they worked for 2 years. Prohibits senior senate staff/officers from lobbying contracts w/the entire senate for a year instead of just their former employing office. Prohibits senior House staff from lobbying their former office/committee for 1 year Prohibiting gifts from lobbyists: Prohibits lobbyists from providing gifts/travel to members of Congress w/knowledge that the gift/travel is in violation of House/Senate rules. Prohibits senators/their staff from accepting gifts from registered lobbyists Requires entertainment/sports tickets offered by registered lobbyists to be valued at marked price

Full public disclosure of lobbying activity: Requires lobbyist disclosure filings to be filed ¼ ly rather than ½ yearly Increases civil penalty from 50 grant to 200 grand& criminal penalties of up to 5 years. Requires Government Accountability Office to audit annually lobbyists compliance with disclosure rules. Congressional pension liability:Denies congressional retirement benefits to members of congress who’re convicted of bribery, perjury, etc in the course of carrying out their official dutiesProhibiting use of private aircraft: Requires candidate, other than house running for seat in House, pau the fair market value of air fares when using non-commercial jets to travel. Prohibits candidates for the House from using non-commercial aircraft. 

Although Bush signed the bill into law he said it was the first step towards significant lobbyist reform and congress hadn’t helped itself by passing legislation placing different standards on the members of the 2 houses. Journalists Stone & Vaida: ‘gone are the good days when lobbyists could buy meals and gifts…now file 3 times the no. of reports w/Congress…potential prison time and fines if they fail to follow the regulations’. Pressure groups had to stop sponsoring trips for members of Congress. National Wildlife Refuge of Alaska can’t take congressmen to see national parks anymore. Unintentional consequence=rush for exit doors on Capitol Hill among congressional staff eager to beat the new rules. 18 senior staffers left Capitol Hill in the last 6 weeks of 07. 4 senators (Lott of Mississippi, Hatch of Utah, Stabenow of Michigan and Cantwell of Washington) lost their chiefs of staff to Washington lobby firms during that period. Lobbyists became a target for presidential campaigns in 08, Obama refused all campaign donations from lobbyists- when he wo the Wisconsin primary in Feb 08- ‘Washington’s become a place where good ideas go to die because lobbyists crush them with their money and influence’. Senator McCain ‘only by breaking the Iron Triangle of big money, special interest lobbyists and their legislation can sovereignty be restored to the American people’- he has battled the revolving door.

Arguments for pressure groups;1) Provide legislators and bureaucrats with useful information and act as a sounding board for legislators at the policy formulation stage.2) They bring some kind of order to the policy debate, aggregating views and channeling the wishes of the clients and members whom they seek to represent.3) They broaden the opportunities for participants in a democracy4) Increase accountability for Congress and Executive5) Increase opportunity for representation between elections as well as offering opportunities for minority views to be represented  that would be lost in the big tent of political parties. Arguments against;1) The revolving-door syndrome: many pressure groups work though hired lobbyist employed by lobbyist firms (many based in Washington) whose fulltime job is to lobby government. There’s nothing wrong with that but a criticism is that a high proportion of these professional lobbyist are former members of congress or congressional staff members which is known as revolving door syndrome, people walk out of the political door (having being defeated in an election, maybe) and immediately renter the political world as a lobbyist. Federal law forbids former public officials from being lobbyists within a year of leaving public office, after that year the traffic through the door from public official to professional lobbyist is heavy. Criticists argue that his constitutes an abuse of public service, people exploit their knowledge of contacts within congress or executive branch of gov. in order to further the interests of their pressure group clients (making lots of money for themselves). 2010 midterm elections saw a large no. of law-makers leave Capitol Hill through retirement or defeat (119). Out of the 81 who found new employment, 31% joined lobbyist firms, 22% become lobbying clients. E.g. former democrat senator Chris Doff now works for Motion Picture Association of America. Holman ‘first you have to wonder what lawmakers are giving in exchange for their potentially lucrative employment, and second, once they leave office, are they exploiting relationships in office for a profitable gain?’. 

2) The iron-triangle syndrome: a strong relationship that many commenters of US politics see existing between pressure groups and the relevant congressional committees and the relevant gov. Department. This guarantees policy outcomes to the benefit of all three parties e.g. the ‘veterans iron triangle’ on one side would be the veteran’s groups (e.g. Vietnam Veterans of America), on the other side would be the veteran’s affairs committee of the house & senate. The department of veteran’s affair would constitute the 3rd side of this ion triangle. The iron triangle’s is linked with the revolving-door syndrome. A pentagon general might, after the waiting period, end up as a lobbyist for a missile manufacturer. Similarly, a former staff member from senate armed services committee might get a jot lobbying for a defence contractor. The existence of these iron triangles raises the q. of whether pressure group activities are compatible with a pluralist society. Many see pressure groups as fostering an elitist view3) Inequality of group: those on the left criticise pressure groups because they see this competition as being one that’s unequal. In the early 50s Eisenhower warned against what he saw as the power of military-industrial complex. While those on the right say that pressure groups operate within a series of competing elites, they see US politics as a system where pressure groups, political parties, bureaucrats, business people, media etc. complete for influence over those who make policy, because each group represents the interests of its own clients its compatible with the democratic society. There’s a no. of policies where pressure groups representing opposition sides of the arguments are unequal e.g. environment, people argue that the resources of big business often outweigh the resources of environmental protectionists. Also, guns, National Rifle Association vs. Handgun control is unequal. The tobacco company industry has spent $67.4 million on lobbying in 98.

3) Specialist interest v. public interest: a criticism levelled at pressure groups is that they tend to put the interests of a small group before the interests of society as a whole. The pressure groups that represent various ethnic groups within American society are a good example; the national association for the advancement of coloured people etc. critics see this as pressure groups adding to a splintering or aromatisation of US society. Pressure groups tend to accentuate me rather than we. They spend too much time fighting for their special interest and little time working for the wider public interest. Provided their client group’s satisfied, they rarely consider the implications for society. They also lead to group stereotyping. Some would argue that part of the reason for the criticism heaped upon Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas in 91 was that he was a conservative black who didn’t fit the group-think of liberal politics as espousal by the NAACP and most other black pressure groups.4) Buying political influence: senator Edward Kennedy once said America has the finest congress that money can buy, you have to pay to play. According to the centre for responsible politics, the year 1998 saw $1.45 billion spent on lobbying activities and the lobbying business is growing at a staggering 7.3% a year. In 02 mid-term elections, PACs donated a total of just short of $215 million to House candidates and just over $60 million to senate candidates. This is well over a quarter-of-billion dollars spent in just 1 mid-term election cycle. Lobbyist therefore get a disproportionate level of influence, in the 104th congress, Drew claims lobbyist working for a group called project relief were given a Capitol Hill office to use as a war room during an energy debate showdown.5) Using direct action: a final criticism levelled at pressure groups is their use of direct action, which is deemed by others to be inappropriate. This criticism is raised whenever pressure groups use what most consider unacceptable levels of violence to pursue their political agency. In recent years it’s been associated with pro and anti-abortion groups, environmentalists etc. violence conducted around abortion clinics by ‘pro-life’ groups hit the headlines in the 90s. anti-capitalist demonstrations that disrupt a meeting of the world trade organisation in Seattle, Washington in 99, followed by demonstrations outside the world bank in Washington DC 2000, brought similar condemnation as did the bombing of the federal government building in Oklahoma City in 95. When the Occupy movement turned violent in some American cities, support quickly evaporated amongst the ordinary citizenry. 

Factors leading to pressure group success: fortune magazine publishes its power 25 survey- list of 25 most influential interest groups in Washington DC.1) Effective organisation and leadership: some groups are easier to organise and lead than others. Heywood righty suggest that producers are easier to organise than consumers; teachers are easier to organise than students. The NRA exhibits effective organisation and leadership whilst the Occupy movement didn’t. 2) Wealth: effective organisation and leadership is linked to wealth. Roosevelt once famously said ‘you can’t do nothing if you aint got nothing to do nothing with’. A pressure group with little/no money is unlikely to be able to successfully achieve its goals. Corporate/trade groups are often richest. Money=more lobbying, engage in more campaigning and have more attractive literature and websites. 3) Large memberships: size of membership. The larger it is the more successful it is. The larger it is the easier it is for the group to claim that it represents a large segment of society. Larger it is, larger its bank balance. AARP is reputed to be the largest in the USA with 40 million members. NRA 4 million members. Linked with size is factor of popularity and public support. The more popular. The more pressure the group can put on gov.4) Status and effectiveness of the opposition: the leadership, size and wealth that a pressure group needs to succeed are related to the leadership, size and wealth of their direct opponents. There are few policy areas where a pressure group has no-one arguing from the opposite corner. Anti-smoking groups have to contend with the powerful and wealthy tobacco industry environmental groups have to contend with car manufacturers groups and groups associated with oil producers. The stronger the opposition the stronger the group needs to be in order to win the argument.5) Achievability of groups goal: a final factor is achievability of groups goals. Planned parenthood wants to keep abortion legal has a much easier task than the national right to life committee which wants a complete ban on all abortions. However, achievability may change with time and perseverance. The past 3 decades have seen considerable changes in public views on such matters as drink driving, capital punishment and smoking in public places. Some groups preserve and succeed whilst others are overtaken by events and become redundant.