1c: Change and challenge in the workplace

Chapter Summary - the short post war economic boom in 1919-20 led to an increase in Labour disputes, which decreased in times of economic hardship from 1921 - the failure of Ramsey MacDonald's Labour government led to increased militancy and the General Strike of May 1926 - the failure of the strike led to a decrease in union power throughout the late 1920s and 1930s, further weakened by mass unemployment - the relationship between government and labour changed during the war as the government once again took control over the economy; strikes were illegal but that did not prevent them from happening  - the experience of wartime controls of industry raised workers' hopes for full nationalisation after the war - the 1950s and 1960s saw mass union membership and high employment, through resentments towards union attitudes were growing.strikes were increasingly the result of militant shop stewards - wildcat strikes by 1969 had become a major political problem for the government, though they were less of an economic problem than they appeared - Barbara Castle was tasked with the job of drafting union reform legislation and she produced 'In Place of Strife' in 1969. The proposals had widespread public popularity but union opposition. Wilson eventually abandoned the proposals, fearing for his own position - Edward Heath's government passed the Industrial Relations Act 971 but met oppositions from the unions who refused to cooperate - a miner's strike over pay paralysed Heath's government in 1972 and when they went on strike again in 1974 they brought down the Heath government -in the late 1970s the unions went on strike again causing the winter of discontent, giving Margaret Thatcher a mandate for her policies of union reform in the 1979 election

Key information 1 changing industrial relations, 1918-39 - in 1871 the Trade Union Act gave legal recognition to trade unions and a series of large unions developed and began working for unskilled workers as well as skilled/artisan workers - unskilled workers were more likely to be radical and found that they were less likely to be supported by the Liberals and/or Conservatives - 1900 the Trades Union Congress (TUC) established a Labour Representation Committee which worked to represent the newly enfranchised population; this became the Labour Party - the period between the wars had high levels of union unrest;  - brief post war boom in 1919-20 led to an increase in labour disputes as unions saw it as an opportunity to extract concessions - the slump that followed meant that union memberships decreased and weakened the unions -1926 there was a general strike but was unrepresentative of the 1921-39 period as there were few other strikes reasons for industrial change - much of GB industry after WW1 hadn't really progressed since Victorian times; it was based on things like iron ores and coal (heavy industry) - heavy industry was previously wealthy but was now using old machinery and under invested compared to new foreign competitors such as Europe and the USA. - there were newer industries but they were centred in the Midlands and Southeast; noticible ones were motor vehicles that often adopted Ford's mass production technique and then light engineering factories which produced consumer goods and household appliances  -Two Englands    - differentiated the areas with old industry and areas with new industry    - cotton, mining and ship building each lost 1/3 of heir workforce whilst others saw an increase; electrical appliance rose 2.5x, building industry grew by 33%; service industries rose by 40% in the 30s. Despite this most still worked in old industry - industrial relations, 1918-21    - during WW1 DLG had negotiated with the trade union movement to keep strikes to a minimum to help the wartime economy; despite this there were still strike such as in 1917 when there were 48 strikes involving 200,000 workers with relationships deteriorating in 1918 - in 1919 there were 32m days lost to strikes but by 1920 only 25m; shows the economic boom had a positive impact on relations -by 1921 when unemployment grew and wages slumped the number of days lost to strike rose to 84m - most strikes were over repressed wages, rising prices and food shortages however some were over politics - many strikes were contained by the government by offering concessions; fear of (communist) revolt meant they tried to contain strikes quick to prevent a revolution The miners' strike, 1921 -The Miners Federation of Great Britain (MFGB) was the largest union with >900,000 members - wartime government control of the mines was welcomes as many saw the pit owners as lazy, greedy and incompetent however government control ended in March 1921 - once returned to private industry wages were cut and hours lengthened to try and compete with foreign coal imports - pit owners took advantage of the high unemployment levels by exploiting workers knowing they had no where else to go - the MFGB, the National Transport Workers Federation (NTFW) and the National Union of Railwaymen (NUR) had discussed united strike action to protect wages if a slump occured; a miners strike could be undermined by importing foreign coal however if dock workers (NTFW) striked and railwaymen refused to move it then the strike had the potential to be crippling - when union leaders refused to accept pay cuts the mine owners locked out their workers on April 1st and the government used the Emergency Powers Act to send troops to south Wales in anticipation - Black Friday    -miners attempts to strike were sabotaged by the other branches of the alliance who abandoned the cause.    - friday 15th the NUR and the NTWF both decided not to go out on strike whilst the MFGB asked other unions to support them but would not allowed them to be a part of the negotiations    - miners striked 15th april - 28th june but were forced to end the walk out as they were alone    - forced to accept pay cuts at left their wages 20% than in 1914    - this left many with resentment towards the rest of the trade unions and with the hope of a Labour election    -  due to Labours failure in 1924 trade unions turned toward their militant tactics to bring about change    - Baldwins decision to take the pound off the Gold Standard meant miners had another pay cut which led to the MFGB holding another strike; headed by radical unionist Arthur Cook 'not a minute on the day nor a penny off the pay' stuck with many The general strike, 1926 - fearing a general strike the government looked into miners' conditions and offered mine oweners a subsidy to maintain miners pay until May 1926 -owing this subsidy was coming to an end the mine owners told the miners that they'd have to accpet pay cuts and were threatened with a lock out  - the Samuel  Commission done by the government recommended a 13.5% pay cut -May 1st miners were locked out for refusing the cut - the TUC announced a general strike would begin on May 3rd knowing the miners couldn't be abandoned again - government response to the strike    -more organised than the TUC and published a propaganda er, The British Gazette, and used the BBC to broadcast messages against the strike    - the TUC only authorised groups linked to the miners to strike    - an anti union group of volunteers, the Organisation for the Maintenance of Supplies was founded to fill the positions of strikers    - the Trades Dispute Act 1906 did not give the unions legal immunity from damage claims for loss of profits and so many strikers eventually returned to work - wages for miners were slashed and the industry lost 30% of its jobs    - new Trades Disputes Act 1927 that prevented sympathetic strikes and mass picketing changing industrial relations, 1929-39 - the aftermath of the general strike meant there were few strikes - the great depression, mass unemployment, union revenues depleted and membership decline (8m in 1922 to 4.5m in 1932) meant there were few chances to strike - exception to this was the Communist Party backed National Unemployed Workers' Movement (NUWM) which grew in size during the depression; it was however still small compared to unions like MFGB - approaching WW2, the economy seen recovery yet the heavy industrial areas were in decline leaving many poverty-stricken and deprived; union action failed to improve Clyde, south Wales, Yorkshire, Merseyside and Tyneside

Key information 2 Changing work opportunities and conditions, 1939-79 Between 1939-79 the work opportunities in GB changed dramatically WW2 - brought considerable changes to employment in GB - the movement to war production brought full employment and led to many women doing jobs predominantly left to males; factories previously abandoned were reopened  - by 1944 estimated that 33% of civilians were involved in war work with 7m women involved - wartime employment    - Minister of Labour, Ernest Bevin had issued an Essential Work Order in March 1941 which made it hard for employers to dismiss workers tied to the essential war effort    - despite this there was a shortage of skilled workers and in September 1939 Control of Employment Act was used to allow semi-skilled workers to undertake skilled workers jobs, skilled workers in essential war industries were exempt from military service    - working conditions in factories often improved    - Bevin hat employers provided medical centres and canteens ; some also set up creches for mothers    - he established a popular radio programme called 'workers playtime' and ensured munitions workers knew their importance in the war effort    - wages increased but hours were long    - bevin boys:began Dec 1943 that conscripted 10% of young men into coal mines instead of the military, this was to replace the 36,000 lost men; many resented the enforced alternative of the armed forces however - full employment    - between 40s-70s both parties focused on full employment; possible due to the favourable economics of the 50s-60s    - between 1948-70 unemployment only rose above 2% for 8 years    - due to the  of unemployment employers had to use attractive wages and conditions to keep the (skilled) workers    - due to long-term employment workers were more likely to leave jobs they didn't like and be more mobile; common in areas with certain industries, i.e. textiles in Nottingham    -    due to the fluidity of workers, employers began to offer benefits to appeal to workers -employment opportunities    -with better education and a good economy people had more flexibility     - previously children followed their parents into a profession but now people had higher expectations    - with an increase in white collar/ managerial jobs and technological jobs there were more opportunities    - surveys showed that white collar jobs were more satisfactory than manual jobs    -growth in service sector i.e. tourism, shops and restaurants - people could spend more so needed people to serve them -work in factories    -car industry was a major employer, by 1956 over 500,000 were directly employed in producing motor vehicles/ components    -problem with factory work was its tedium, this worsened with automation, it was hard to make it interesting  but the benefit was the pay; average weekly earning for men £8.30 in 1951 to £15.35 in 1961, by 1971 rose to £30.93    - retail prices rose by 63% between 1955 and 1969 and the weekly wage rates went up by 88%, with overtime accounted for the figure was 130%    - wage increase meant people could buy more, led to high consumer demand which meant companies could bulk buy/ produce which reduced costs/prices growth of unemployment in the 1970s    - full employment declined as soon as government abandoned it    - unemployment rose to 1m in 1972 and the idea of job security began to fade    - decline in heavy industry meant that unemployment was higher in regions such as Wales (north and south), the Midlands and Scotland    - in the West Midlands most were employed in the motor vehicle industry that any problems in the sector had significant knock on effects; issues was that there were few other industries to go an work in    -    by 1976 the Labour government conceded that the working opportunities that existed at the end of WW2 were no longer possible; it abandoned its commitment and accepted market forces would determine who worked and who didnt

Key information 3 Industrial relations, 1939-79 - relationships between trade unions and the government underwent a transition during 1939-79; during the war they cooperated well but during the late 60s and the 70s the relationship became more agnostic which led to confrontations WW2    - in may 1940 the support of the Labour Party allowed Winston Churchillto form a new National Government    - from a union point of viewhe most impotant member was Ernest Bevin; through the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939 Bevin had almost complete control over the GB workforce    - Bevin had been the leader of the Transport and General Workers Union (TGWU) and was seen as safe by Churchill as he preached moderation and co-operation; he fostered joint production committees in factories between workers and management to explore efficiency- saving techniques and piece rate bonuses to efficient workers    - skilled workers and union shop stewards became powerful during the war because of labour shortages and high demand for quality work -Ernest Bevin was a working class politician and trade unionist. born in Somerset and worked as a lorry driver and labourer before becoming and involved politician. He was on the right of the Labour Party and suspicious of communism. Participated in the General Strike on 1926 but thought of it as a mistake. After his wartime service as minister of labour and national service he became foreign secretary and was regarded as one of the most talented statesmen in the post . died in 1951  -wartime strikes    - inaccurate view of the war years is that there was social peace and unity against the Nazi threats however the war created long antisocial hours, a lack of recognition and changeable pay packets which led  numerous strikes and protest     - in 1940 the government introduced Defence Regulaion 58AA which banned strikes and lockouts -miners    - in 1942 at Betteshanger in Kent, miners went on strike illegally, the government took over running the coal industry and prosecuted 1050 miners and fined them between £1-3 so other miners downed tools in solidarity which forced the Home Secretary to drop the charges and improve wages    - often younger miners or Bevin boy who were conscripted into the mines went on strike because they were angry about the lower rates they had compared to older miners; in south Wales coal fields alone there were 514 strikes between 1939 and 1944    - in spring 1944, 100000 Welsh miners went on unofficial strikes for better wages and the government quickly relented; in 1944 daily rate was £5 yet manufacturers wage was £6.10 shillings Industrial relations, 1945-51    - during the war many had been appointed to numerous government bodies on wages, industry and social policy; this continued which meant union leaders had a say and were often heard    - in 1939 union leaders sat on 12 government committees but by 1949 they sat  60    - in 1945, 120 Labour MPs sponsored directly by the unions of which 26 became ministers and 6 sat in cabinet (inc. Ernest Bevin); between 1945-51 the TUC and Labour Party shared similar views     - labour repealed the 1927 Trades Dispute Act imposed after the General strike which restored the union movement -the industrial charter    - in 1947 the Conservative Party carried out a review of the policies published in the Industrial Charter, the pamphlet was a clear indication that the party recognised that growing union membership and a widespread desire for a welfare state and fair treatment at work meant they had to adopt Labour's pro-union approach     - the charter expressed a desire by the party to see large unions that democratically represent the will of the members    - the Conservatives argued that a  human relations approach was better than strike action; thought that trying to understand feelings would reduce discontent as a result of using a paternalist approach to protect everyone's interests Industrial relations, 1951-64    - the 1950s was an era of high employment and high trade union membership     - a new prosperous union leadership emerged whose lifestyles were often different from their members; e.g. TUC secretaries Vic Feather and Len Murray lived affluent lives (but they did work long hours for their members) and had different expectations to members due to different experinces; Feather and Murray were not heavily influenced by post-war materialism as they started career in 30s-40s where as young members were as they started later on    - as a result of this members related more to the militant, unpaid op steward and some were even able to build power bases in their areas, allowing them to call strikes before official decisions despite having no constitutional rights and delaying/ not having negotiations with management    - due to shop stewards there would be a more aggressive confrontational series of union events in 60s-70s; attitude was focused on consumerism over socialism -deterioration in relations    - Walter Monckton, Conservative minster of Labour attempted a conciliatory policy with unions but relations deteriorated    - 1945-54 ~1,751 strikes p.a. involving ~1/2 m workers but from 1955-64 ~2,521 involving ~1.1m workers    - growing perception of unionised men being lazy, obstructive and too powerful; unions blames; demonstrated by the popular film 'I'm Alright Jack' from 1959 which made shop stewards look like pompous, petty, bullies Industrial relations, 1964-69    - in 1964, 13 years of Conservative political rule was swept away by Labour PM, Harold Wilson who understood the national mood; his persona (drinking beer, pipe smoking, wearing a mac and holidaying on the Scilly Isles) was designed to project an image popular to the trade unions but by the end of the decade was working against them -wildcat strikes    - these are strikes that are not officially sanctioned by the unions/TUC and were popular in the period    - Wilson was reluctant to intervene however the wildcat movement was associated with the union movement and connected to the Labour Party making them look bad    - 90% of strike action was unofficial and the TUC couldn't control them     - average of 3m days lost a year in the 60s but in 1968 lept to 4.8m - The Times called it 'the year of the strike' ; e.g. Girling Brake Strike were there was a protest (walkout) other a worker from another union using their designated oil pump which led to 5000 workers being laid off and £M's being lost -causes of militancy     - due to creeping inflation not satirised men from I'm Alright Jack    - the growth of affluence only benefited those warded with above inflation pay increases and most union members were frequently exempt; for many their pay increases were cancelled out by the inflation 1967-9  -in place of strife    - Wilson's relationship with the unions was good whilst he was arranging for the national wage to increase with price rises ; TUC invited to 10 Downing Street for beer and sandwiches at meetings    - the Conservative opposition led by Heath proposed union reform. in 1968 Wilson created his own policy knowing it could be an election winner.    - in 1969 Barbara Castle was tasked with the job of creating new laws to prevent wildcat strikes and limit union power    -striking only resulted in 0.1% of all working days being lost    - Barbara Castle created a white paper called in price of strife, proposed;  governments could order a strike ballot before official industrial action took place if it was deemed a threat to the economy; workers in unofficial strikes led by militant shop stewards would be ordered back to work y the secretary of state for a 28 day cooling off period; unions fighting with each other in the workplace would go to an industrial board who would give a legally binding verdicts; strikes that broke these laws would be illegal and unions could face stiff fines and members possibly imprisoned    - widespread public support in Jan 1969 but unions opposed to it    - when James Callaghan (home secretary) opposed it and Wilson feared for his job and scrapped the legislation Industrial relations, 1970-4     - Heath's Industrial Relations Act 1971 attempted to introduce all measures that Castle had proposed; due to soaring inflation it was ineffective as the TUC refused to cooperate and threatened unions with expulsion they did    - illegally striking shop stewards could now face prison but Heath's government hesitated to enforce its own new rules -miners strike    - miners had already been consistently underpaid throughout the 60s; wages 3% lower than manufacturers; despite a period of increased living standards, home ownership, overseas holidays and mass consumerism, thousands of poorly paid miners felt they had been excluded from the nation's prosperity     - rising prices caused inflation during the 60s and early 70s made strike action more likely as miners saw their living standards decline    - throughout the 60s the GB coal industry had shrunk and the National Coal Board (NCB) had closed >400 pits and 420000 miners were made redundant; the National Union of Mineworkers (formed from the MFGB in 1945) was able to prevent some closing down in poor parts of the country by making low wage claims which was felt by the miners    - in 1970 the union voted for a 33% pay increase to put them on par with other industries    - the NUM leadership voted for strike action which required 2/3 majority but only 50% agreed to strike; led to many unofficial strikes over the north of England and south Wales    - the heath government imposed a pay policy that restricted possible pay rises to 8% in Dec 1971    - NUM changed the rules so only a 55% majority was needed and was achieved; the strike began Jan 1972 -flying pickets    - most high profile union member during the disputes was Arthur Scargill who was leader of the Barnsley Area Strike Committee; he developed the tactic of fly pickets using a group of 1000 miners to blockade power stations and coal depots    - in 1972 this reduced electricity output to 25%; Scargill had 40000 miner picket 500 separate sites causing Heath to fear widespread violence and loss of life     - unlike Baldwins government 1926 he was not prepared so when Scargill suceeded in shutting down the west Midlands gas board's Saltley coke depot in Birmingham the government offered a 27% pay rise - who governs GB    - a second strike in winter of 1973-4  was called by NUM after realising the oil crisis of 1973 left GB dependent on coal; taken as an opportunity for a pay increase    - the strike meant that coal-fired power stations began to run on short supplies of coal and electricity production declined; this led to power cuts    - the government was forced to declare a state of emergency and order a 3 day working week between Jan and March 1974; all business were supplied with electricity for 3 days a week and employees forced to stay home the rest of the time    - in 1974 Heath went to the polls with the slogan 'who governs britain?' but the defeat of the conservatives showed the public had no confidence in their ability to deal with unions Industrial relations 1974-9 - new Labour government repealed Heath's Industrial Relations Act and negotiated a new policy with the unions called a social contract; created  as a voluntary code to prevent the need of formal incomes policy with specific limits on pay rises; relied on union bosses pursuading members to accept the pay restraint - union bosses were/had become less influential against shop stewards - difficult to ask members to stick to 6% pay rise when inflation was at 27% - in 1975 the TUC agreed to pay increases of £6 a wekk to workers earning less than £8500; they accepted further limits in 1976 and rejected a motion at the 1976 TUC conference to end the social contract and return to free pay bargaining - when wilson resigned in ill health in April 1976 he was succeeded by Callaghan and in 1978 Labour prospects seemed good -the winter of discontent    - James Callaghan and his chancellor Denis Healey made tackling inflation a high priority     - by 1977 Healey believed that inflation was being brought back under control and that the social contract had run its course; he thought free bargaining could return but warned against 'greedy' unions    - the following year he was forced to backtrack as inflation soared once again and he enforced a strict 5% pay increase for low paid workers    - resulted  a winter of strike action in 1978-9 that the government was powerless to prevent -ford pay negotations    - ford the care manufacturing giant attempted to enforce the governments pay policy; in response to 15000 autoworkers went on strike on 22nd September     - the strike was unofficial when it began but by 5th October the TGWU had endorsed it which led to the other Ford workers striking, total of 57000 workers    - ford offered a 17% pay rise which meant they incurred government penalties showed the social contract was unenforceable    - the left of the Labour Party also sabotaged the social contract, voting through a motion at the party conference in October that the government stop intervening in pay negotiations between workers and management -haulage strike    - government now had no way of enforcing pay restraints and the union seized the opportunity to gain pain increases    - in Dec 1978 lorry drivers began an overtime ban demanding a 40% pay rise    - Callaghan was reluctant to declare a state of emergency as Heath had done even though it would allow the army to fill their positions    - the TGWU picketed oil refineries, meaning that petrol could not reach schools, hospitals and homes; this was worsened by one of the longest, coldest winters since 1947 -public sector strike    - on Jan 1979 millions of low paid public employees went on strike as public sector unions, such as the National Union of Public Employees (NUPE), tried to ensure that their members got the same pay rises as employees in the private sector    - more than 1/3 of public sector employees took home £40 a week and public sector unions demanded it rise to £60    - the nurses union, The Royal College of Nursing, demanded a 25% wage rise nurses    - public sector unions began to lose control over their members, who declared strike action in vital services such as the ambulance service and 99 emergency telephone lines    - The British press reported that cancer patients had to use the London Underground to get to hospital appointments    - in Jan grave diggers went on strike and while only a few (80) went on strike the newspapers printed full page stories  of mortuaries filling with unburied bodies and potentially having to bury bodies at sea    - another visual example of the chaos strikes was the mountains of rubbsh in the city centre caused by refuse collectors going on strike    - the government offered a 11% pay increase and tried to negotiate directly with unions but realised the union no longer had control    - strikes ended when members got their pay rise or eventually decided to return anyway -shifting public attitudes    - main consequence of the winter of discontent was a dramatic shift in public attitudes against the trade union movement    - 1969 60% of people had said they had positive views of unions but in 1979 only 20% did