4c: Leisure and travel

Chapter summary - spectator sports continued to grow during the inter war years, although many clubs in less affluent areas struggled to survive during the depression - BBC broadcasts brought sports into many people's homes and thus helped develop a sense of common interests among people -during WW2 although competitive leagues were halted, sport was an important morale booster - during the post war period tv helped to make sport more international in scope -as a spectator sport football was marred by hooliganism during the 1960s and 1970s  - during the interwar period tourism grew among those in work with holidays in resorts such as Blackpool, the growth of holiday camps and healthy pursuits such as walking and camping - the period after WW2 saw a huge growth in foreign tourism  - holidays such as caravanning became very popular as people preferred to organise their holidays independently from tour operators - car ownership developed during the interwar period although it was overwhelmingly the preserve of the upper and middle classes - the significant development in car ownership gave people more independence but led to overcrowded roads - the decline in the railways led to the beeching axe which saw 5,000 miles of railway closed - the growth in foreign travel led to a large increase in air travel facilitated by charter flights and cheap airlines

Key information 1 The growth in spectator sports from the 1920s In the 20thC football, rugby and other spectator sports have had an important social function as central institutions in GB life, culture and identity spectator sports, 1918-39 - as sport developed mass spectator audiences throughout the century it gradually became profitable - during 20s-30s it was possible to see major events such as horse races for free; at epsom, aintree and derby race courses large free areas attratced crowed between 200,000-500,000; average 22m people attended professional football games - during the great depression, football, rugby and cricket clubs in deprived areas struggle to continue due to a decline in tickets - nearly all rugby league clubs outside yorkshire and lancashire closed due to low attendance and the only matches that had >50,000 spectators were held after the worst of the economic crisis had passed in contrast other sports enjoyed large mainly middle class audiences between the wars: tennis, show jumping and golf (>50,000 people paying to see the Ryder cup in 1933) - mass sporting events added to spectators quality of life by providing entertainment at an affordable price - audiences were predominantly male so the effect was weaker on women grey hound racing ->    - after football the next largest spectator sport during the inter war period    - in june 1927 white city stadium, one of the largest athletics arenas in the UK became the biggest greyhound track in the country    - in 1933 Walthamstow Stadium opened and on race nights up to 100,000 people would attend to bet on dogs    - the development of the event meant that leisure had become a central part of life broadcasting -> - by 1936 the BBC had begun to broadcast live from football matches which concerned the Football Association (FA) as they thought it would not be successful - radio broadcasts helped to strengthen and increase mass participation in football and enabled it to develop its audience as it transformed into a national spectator sport - as the mass media helped extend sporting events across the country and create a national spectator culture, the amount of money that sport could generate began to increase sport during WW2 -initially sports stadiums were closed during the war due to fear of mass casualties if it were to be bombed; this was unpopular and so they were reopened  - there was an cessation of normal league competitions of the professional sportsmen joining the armed forces - the military were able to form talented teams and spectator sport took the form of games between forced in aid of charity; may 1943 55,000 attended a football match at Chelsea which raised £8,000 for naval welfare charities - successful cricket matches were staged between British Empire XI and the London Counties XI; one match at Lords in July 1944 between the RAF and the Army was temporarily delayed as a V1 bomb landed nearby - an FA services football team even played France and Belgium in their capital cities in September 1944 shortly after their libirarition winning 5-0 and 3-0; alleged that it had to be checked for mines before they played - military personnel and civilians were encouraged to keep fit through organised sport and it was generally seen as important for boosting morale spectator sports 1945-79 - after WW2 GB newspaper devoted more coverage to sport than any other topic - despite later domination of football the late 50s were a time of cricket - developments in technology increased GB tv audiences access to sporting events around the world - the televisation of international sporting events such as the Football World Cup and the Olympic and Commonwealth Games enabled viewers to support GB teams and sportspeople competing around the world  - during the 1966 world cup final, 32 million viewers watched England defeat West Germany - a direct benefit of the development of a national sporting culture was increased government investment in sporting facilities during the 1960s-70s - in order to help GB athletes and sportspeople compete internationally and win the events and tournaments that so many GB spectators were tuning in to watch the government developed the Sports Council of GB in 1972 - it was designed to promote sport both among the elite atheletes and the public as a whole; 'Sport for all' cricket ->    - experienced an enormous surge in popularity after 1945; by 1948 the ashes test between england and australia attracted as many spectators as the olympics did that year    - by 1960s there was a gradual decline both in the numbers of people attending cricket matches and the number of matches held    - in 1955 there were 3,473 matches but in 1965 there were only 2,268    - the popularity of football, the power of tv and wider choice of leisure activities available all contributed to crickets decline    - the sport was also associated with GB's imperial past and its class system and was seen to be out of step with the GB of the early 60s    - west indian and asian immigrants were among the most passionate cricket fans in the 60s and beyond, particularly when their native countries were playing against England or the other major cricketing nations football ->    - in 1948 41m tickets were sold for football league matches; fell 30m 2 decades later    - the economic hardships austerity years and the post war boom might possibly explain the surge and decline    - football spectatorship offered an escape from post war austerity but as the GB economy boomed in the 60s and living standards grew, football had to compete with other pastimes for people's attention    - another reason for the decline of ticket sales was the growth in the availability of sport on tv    - a further reason that alienated many from attending football matches was the growth in violent clashes between rival supporters    - ordinary fans witnessed the game they enjoyed being overshadowed by news headlines of violent disturbances football hooliganism ->    - from the 1950s onwards, football became synonymous with ever increasing outbursts of violence on the terrace as supporters ad fans engaged in bloody clashes and riots    - this is a phenomena that is most associated with the 70s and 80s but research suggests that it began much earlier    - violence was almost exclusively working class and was seen as a result of the poverty they lived in; this is countered by the fact that most working class fans throughout the post war era were becoming progressively better off    - older men, who might have exerted calming influence, attended matches less and less frequently as they were able to afford leisure time away from the football terraces (gardening etc)

Key Information 2 The development of mass tourism - In the 19thC tourism, and especially foreign tourism, was a luxury reserved for the aristocracy and the upper middle classes - In the 20thC this changed with sufficient leisure time, money and cheap travel costs to turn tourism into a mass industry - By 1925, 1.5m working class employees had access to paid holidays and bank holidays as a result of Liberal and Labour social reforms; this created opportunities for the tourism industry to expand - As standards of living rose in the decades after WW2, the degree of consumer choice regarding leisure time and holidays also grew - Holidaymakers began to adopt new holiday experiences when presented with alternatives to boarding houses, Butlin's camp or poor customers service, a vast growth in foreign travel meant domestic venues had to adapt to maintain their custom. - Affluence allowed that tastes of GB public to change and not everyone shared the same outlook and aspirations - There was a shift away from older, more collectivist ideas to more aspirant and individualistic values tourism for the wealthy - before 1918, few working class people had been able to take holidays - as a result most tourist facilities were geared towards the wealthy, such as expensive hotels in seaside and spa resorts, and leisure facilities such as golf courses - sailing was popular among the wealthy both off the coast and in inland areas such as Norfolk Broads; many people went to seaside resorts for the good of their health and brochures often featured their health giving qualities - few people went abroad and those who did tended to go to exclusive locations such as the French Riviera or for tours of art galleries and museums in Italy and Greece; this continued throughout the interwar period - many followed guidebooks such as the German produced Baedeckers, which concentrated on the most expensive hotels, art and cultural pursuits and gave advice on how much to tip staff - it was often the increasing popularity of resorts that led to more affluent tourists to find alternative venues Tourism in the 1930s - the growth of affordability of cars throughout the 1930s led to the development of tourism across GB that was not reliant on train travel to seaside resorts  - in 1936 coaches transported 82m passengers to rural parts of GB and by 1939 there were 2m cars on the road - Scotland, the Lake District and the north Wales were the most popular destinations for caravanners, campers and hikers with 72,000 people a year visiting the Lake District during the 30s - cheap hiking holidays were made easier by the growth in the Youth Hostel Association, which offered dormitory rooms and breakfast; the attraction of Lake District grew in the 1930s with the publication of Arthur Ransome's Swallows and Amazons novels between 1932-6 - a better educated population resulted in more visits to places of important cultural and historical significance, such as Stratford-upon-Avon for the annual Shakespeare Festival and Hampton Court Palace - nevertheless holidays to seaside reports remained popular, and in the 1930s the number of boarding houses and holiday camps grew in these resorts to accommodate the growth of tourism the boarding house ->    - for many seaside holidaymakers, hotels were too expensive, so a cheaper option was a stay in a seaside boarding house    - by 1920a there were 4,000 boarding houses in Blackpool and many famalies returned  after year to the same establishment    - many boarding houses were run by single 'spinsters' or widows     - as the disposable income of holidaymakers gradually increased, boarding houses became less attractive: guests were not given keys of their own and were not able to stay out after certain hours, many landladies operated strict rules of behaviour and while many offered a home away from home experience, others were considered overbearing butlins ->    - day trips to Blackpool, Weston Super Mare, Morecambe Sands and Southend became familiar experiences for working class families in the 20s and 30s but mass working class tourism changed with the creation of holiday camps     - the businessmen Billy Butlin imported the idea of the holiday camo from Canada, Building the first one at Skegness in 1936, promising 'a weeks holiday for a weeks wages'.    - Traditionally landladies at GB seaside resorts were inhospitable and unfriendly.    - Butlins knew that if he offered cheap holidays in chalet accommodation with activities and entertainment whatever the weather with 3 meals a day then they would be popular    - grew for 30 years    - creation of the cheap package holidays that ended butlins domination of the working class leisure market    - in 1939 his Skegness and Clackton camps were providing holidays for 100,000 visitors a year;by the 1960s 6 more holiday camps had been built     - began to decline in the early 1970s; less appealing due to the regimented nature of their time there    - it was compared to an army camp and as tastes began to change people wanted a more individual experience    - butlins changed its strategy in late 1960s to try and appeal to teens and young adults (more disposable income); this backfired with stories if vandalism, drinking and teenage sex     - the rise and decline of butlins shows how changes in income and consumer choice shaped spending habits alongside the importance of teenage consumers customer service ->    - attitudes towards customer service in GB, particularly in the hotel and tourism industries     - service became more personalised; hotels offered a wider choice of menus and developed leisure facilities     - increased spending power from customers, wider access to overseas travel and greater expectations on the part of consumers mean the standard approach to hotel guests needed to change foreign tourism in the 1950s to 1970s - during the 1950s the affordability of holidays meant that they became a central feature of life for many - almost all businesses in GB offered at least a fortnights annual leave by the early 1960s  - the beachfronts of Spain and Portugal, once home to fishing villages were transformed throughout the 1960s as high rise holiday apartment blocks, hotels, bars, cinemas and restaurants were built - the combination of cheap accommodation, flights and hot weather made them immensely attractive for GB holidaymakers who now had disposable income - the gradual increase in GB holidays to the Mediterranean in the 1960s (4% of GB holidaymakers in 1968 to 8% in 1971) helped to finance the developments  - during the 1960s the government prevented people from taking more than £50 out the country per year to protect the pound; this limited people in their holidays - the decision to allow £25 per trip caused a boom in holiday travel - in 1971 GB took 4m holidays abroad, 1981 rose to 13m changing tastes ->    - the experience of foreign travel was exciting and exotic but a common experience in the early days was that it was overcrowded with half built hotels and stomach upsets (many were suspicious of foreign food so went to places that looked british)     - as living standards rose there was a change in tastes and attitudes towards European countries and many began to try different cultures (and food)    - the expansion of leisure time and affluence were enjoyed at home as well; family life changed as many men now had more time to spend at home with traditional escapes such as that working man's club and the pub declining     - pursuits such as gardening and DIY increased in popularity as a result of home ownership new forms of tourism->    - caravanning           - one of the most popular means of travelling GB and enjoying the countryside in the 1960s          -developed in the 1930s; 1934 there were >90 models of caravans open to the public          - as living standards rose post WW2 the ownership increased           - possible due to the increase of car ownership and suburban homes having drive ways          - appealed to those who wanted to be independent and not tied to schedules like butlins or boarding houses          - caravan holidays accounted for 20% of all holidays in the 1960s, >1/2 the population had caravans by the 1970s    - the 'hippy trail'          -rising living standards and levels of education led to the development of alternative ideas about travel in the 1970s          - young people searched for a more authentic experience and rejected the overt materialism of the 1960s          - a route to Nepal and India; those taking this journey were insignificant compared to Majorca/ Ibiza           - most went by car, van or train across Europe, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan to India and Nepal with some going to Thailand          - most travellers were in their 20s           - not many liked the trial but it is demonstrative of a change in attitudes and leisure leisure and class ->    - there were still significant inequalities in the sphere of leisure    - by 1965 full employment and broader working rights meant that 60% of adults had 2/3 weeks of paid holiday a year yet 25% had no paid holiday entitlement    - the working class was better off given new working rights    - 1/3 middle class had regular holidays abroad in 1960s yet only 1/5 of working class could afford foreign holidays    - foreign holidays were more common in late 1960s and early 1970s; 1.5m holidayds abroad in 1951 compared to 8.5m in 1972, numbers declined in 1973 due to price rises  

Key information 3 The impact of car ownership and other travel developments, 1918-79 - The relationship between GB people and car ownership has closely mirrored changes in affluence throughout the 20thC - The development of GB into a car-owning society has seen dramatic transformations in the country's transport infrastructure and urban environment, with thousands of miles of motorways being built over the course of the century - towns and cities have been redesigned and remodelled to accommodate cars and vehicles themselves have been advertised and marketed as aspirational possessions - since the birth of the GB auto industry, cars have been presented as status symbols or expressions of individuality, success and sex appeal; the growth of car ownership has seen a decline in public transport  - the development in foreign holidays meant a huge growth in air travel the interwar car industry, 1918-39 - throughout the 20s and 30s there had been a dramatic shift away from the use of horse drawn carriages; 200,000 in 1923 and 12,000 in 1937 - there was a rapid decline in tram usage as town and city council switched to buses instead - the effect of this was to transform the environment of inner cities; by 1934 there were nearly 2.5m cars on GB roads of which half were privately owned  - most cars produced in the 20s were prohibitively expensive; The Rover 10/25 cost £250 ( £11,000 today) in 1929 and was far beyond anything most families could afford  - by the 30s however, car prices had fallen considerably; an Austin Seven, small family car, cost £125 and the Morris Minor SV was the first £100 car - produced in 1931 - car ownership in the 30s was overwhelming the preserves of the middle class; these prices were affordable for the middle class but often not for the working class - there were numerous secondhand car dealers who sold cars for approx £40-70; these were more affordable and some families formed syndicates where they shared the cost and usage of the car - the development of mass marketing and consumerism made cars a desirable and sought after possession road building - the rapid growth in car ownership led to an expansion of GB's roads network in the 30s - many new tarmac-covered roads were built on pre-existing highways, but new roads, often cutting through GB's most scenic countryside, were also built. - major civil engineering projects such as the Mersey Tunnel (opened 1934) and the Great North Road (finished 1939) ere the result of increased car ownership. but there were very few major roads in GB by the eve of WW2 road traffic act ->    - in 1930 the road traffic act removed speed limits from all but the most dangerous stretches of road, because the original 20mph speed limit was almost enforceable     -without sophisticated methods of ascertaining speed, the police were unable to bring effective prosecutions    - the 1930 act did contribute to road safety in  other ways: compulsory 3rd party insurance; the highway code; powers for local authorities to control traffic with traffic lights, roundabouts and one way streets road deaths ->    - between 1926-30 there were 124,000 car crashes in GB which resulted in >4,800 deaths    - motorists causes 80% of the deaths    - in 1934 there were 7,343 deaths and 231,603 injuries    - in 1934 a new road traffic act was made which introduced a 30mph speed limit in residential areas and brought in pedestrian crossings    - the new act also meant that drivers had to pass a test to drive now new industries ->    - a new industry of car workshops, garage and petrol stations developed in order to provide motorists with everything they needed to keep a car running    - car industries had become progressively more reliable by the 30s and therefore consumer increasingly looked to cars as a better way of travel than rail travel    - driving also became a leisure activity in its own right; travel guides for drivers with detailed maps and ideas about places to visit and stay became popular    - cars were used for day trips and weekend excursions and a new market emerged for books on rural GB cars and consumer boom - car production in GB was interrupt  by WW2 as production lines were used to build fighter aircraft; the war also placed restrictions on the amount of petrol motorists could use and rationing of petrol continued until 1950 - after the war many of the models that came off the production lines were plagued with problems and faults - a combination of poor labour relations in car factories such as Ford’s Dagenham plant and Morris Motor’s factory at Cowley and autocratic management styles in most of GB’s major car companies resulted in a weakened car industry - by the 70s the car industry was becoming synonymous with faulty and poor-quality cars; when PM James Callaghan ordered 2 new ministerial cars from Rover they had to be returned due to having 34 faults including the window function - GB consumers responded to the decline in domestic cars by increasing  choosing imports - as GB average wages continued to rise throughout the 60s, car ownership increased; 2.2m cars were registered in London alone by the end of the decade , as many as there had been in the entire country just 3 decades earlier - by 1972 there were 13m drivers on GB’s roads and they were increasingly buying better made and cheaper cars from overseas, in particular, Japan and Germany; 1/3 of cars were imported in 1975 and 1/2 by 1979 - GB consumers bought millions of Volkswagen Beetles and later Golfs and the smaller reliable and cheap Japanese car the Datsun Sunny - the failure of the GB car industry had little overall impact on the living standards or driving habits of motorists in the UK; most demonstrated that their loyalty was to low price, high quality and reliability and not to GB companies - significantly, car ownership was not spread equally across the nation; as early as the 50s middle class families often owned 2 cars and as a result could commute to work - a result of commuting enabled new villages to be built such as Tewin Wood in Hetfordshire; they were often exclusive to the middle class however - a working class family was less likely to have a car and thus the children often stayed local even when going to university - the rise in car ownership however saw a decline in journeys by bus and coaches; these had grown significantly with the growth of holidays and by 1952 accounted for 42% of all journeys at 92 billion km, by 1969 this had fell to 286 billion km The mini ->     - in 1959 the most iconic GB car of the post war era was manufactured     - the mini, built by the GB Motor Corporation, was extremely popular and sold nearly 1.2m vehicles in GB and around the world     - the car was small, fashionable and affordable in the early 60s but actually made a loss on every vehicle sold Roads and motorways - the development of GB into a car owning society resulted in a dramatic expansion of the road network from the 30s onwards; the 60s and 70s were the most significant - In 1958 the Preston bypass road opened (first 8mile stretch of motorway) and was followed in 1959 by the M1 (London-Birmingham) - the 60s and 70s saw many motorways being completed; the development of these major new high speed roads had a significant impact on the quality of life for much of the population - environmentalists complained about the loss of green space and habitats for wild animals and home owners close to motorways felt that the noise and traffic impacted on their lifestyles. - people became more mobile and found it easier than ever before to travel across the country ; motorways also made it easier for people to commute, relocate and live further away from the communities they grew up in beeching axe ->    - the rise in the popularity of cars as a means of passenger transport did not in itself result in a decline in the use of the train network    - figures tended to hold up between 1955 and 1965 at 994m and 865m passenger-kilometers with a peak of 1,100m in 1960    - it was more that rising operating costs, including wages, meant tat nationalised railways ceased making a profit at the start of the 1960s and by 1962 had made a £104m loss (~£300,000 a day)    - Dr Richard Beeching, head of the British Transport Commission, decided to prioritise road networks; wanted to remove 5,000 miles of railway despite widespread public opposition    - by the end of this, GB had half its railway capacity; this caused them to be congested but also fall in usage, by 1982 passenger-kilometers fell to 32m    - pre beeching axe there had already been 3,000 miles cutin the 1950s and between 1948-61 railway staff fell 26% international travel - roll-on roll-off ferries made taking a car abroad easier and cheaper however people preferred air travel  - first international air service began August 1919 when Air Transport and Travel flew one passenger from Hounslow near London to LeBourget near Paris for £21 - many others began to follow and using converted wartime aircraft; demand was low and most companies were short lived - in 1924 the 4 major GB companies amalgamated into Imperial Airways with government subsidies to encourage the development of air routes to countries in the Empire -by 1932 it was possible to fly to Australia using GB colonies as fuelling stations - the interwar period was the more glamorous age for air travel  yet demand remained low ; 1937 saw fewer than 250,000 passengers and even by 1955 less than 1m (could fly direct to USA by this point) - advent of cheap holidays led to a growing demand; by 1970 14m passengers - one factor in cheap fights pioneered by Laker Airlines began June 1966; they were charter only and so were booked in advance by holiday companies as part of joint holiday resort and transport package for their customers, pre-cursors of modern 'no frills' airlines conclusions the period 1918-79 saw many developments in transport in keeping with increased demand far more people found independence in car ownership although the offshoot has been overcrowded roads and often underfunded alternatives the development of charter flights made cheap air travel possible and more people gained experience of domestic and foreign travel