2. Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid medium

Identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood:-Carbon dioxide: partly carried by haemoglobin, but most is carried by plasma in the form of bicarbonate irons (HCO3)-Oxygen: haemoglobin -Water: carried as blood solvent of blood plasma-Salts: water soluble and is carried by blood plasma-Lipids: 'packaged' in protein coat. This makes the fat molecule miscible in water (while not fully dissolved, the molecules can be dispersed without joining together to form 'fat clumps' and separating from water). In this form they are dispersed in blood plasma.-Nitrogenous waste: (such as urea), water soluble and carried in blood plasma-other products of digestion: (sugars and amino acids) water soluble and carried by plasma

Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essentialNeed for oxygen in living cellsOxygen diffuses from haemoglobin along the concentration gradient constantly as it is always favouring this due to cellular respiration.Why the removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essentialCO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid, the end result of this decreases the ph level of our cells: CO2 + H2O > H2CO3. The carbonic acid then separates to H+(hydrogen) and HCO3- (bicarbonate iron). The hydrogen ion then makes water more acidic and Bicarbonate ion is the form in which carbon dioxide is carried in the blood.(So, carbon dioxide must be removed immediately otherwise our pH levels fall and effect the rate of enzyme activity!)

Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water

Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin-Oxygen isn’t very soluble in water, and cant be carried efficiently in plasma. So, 4 molecules of oxygen is able to be carried by haemoglobin. Haemoglobin therefore increases the bloods' oxygen carrying capacity and makes it easier for oxygen to be diffused easily. Organisms with blood containing haemoglobin are able to transport oxygen to cells more efficiently than organisms that don’t.-Oxyhaemoglobin is the combination of oxygen and haemoglobin. The pH in the body tissues is slightly lowered by the small concentration of carbon dioxide, this causes the haemoglobin to change shape and release the oxygen molecules and pick up some carbon dioxide. This was an advantage to primitive ancestors.

Perform a first hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to gather information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams of each

Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function-ArteriesHave thick muscular walls to withstand the pressure from the blood being pumped from the heart.They expand and contract to help push the blood. (This causes the pulse feeling).-VeinsAre thinner as they do not handle large amounts of pressure (they only carry blood to the heart).Also have valves to prevent any 'back-flow' of blood-CapillariesAre one cell thick to allow diffusion of substances such as gases.They are spread out through all body tissues. Red blood cells travel through in single file

Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around the body to identify tissues in which these changes occurBlood (deoxygenated) goes to right atrium > right ventricle pumps to lungs > blood (oxygenated) enters the left atrium, leaves left ventricle > digested nutrients (sugars, amino acids, salts, water & vitamins [expect lipids which are first absorbed into lymphatic 'drains' and enter blood later]) enter blood from gut > vein takes this blood to liver where some nutrients are absorbed from blood (for storage/chemical processing) + urea is added to blood > blood passes body cells and body cells absorb nutrients (muscles- glucose; amino acids & lipids-bones) > kidneys extract nitrogenous wastes, excess salts and water from blood for urineSo, gut > liver > body cells > kidneys.+sugars, amino acids, salts, water & vitamins-some nutrients & + urea-some glucose; amino acids & lipids-nitrogenous wastes, excess salts and water

Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood and describe and explain the conditions under which these technologies are usedMeasured by: Finger-clamp Oximeter measures %SpO2 (percentage oxygen saturation)How it works: Light source sends red light and inca-red through flesh. Receiver measures absorption of light by haemoglobin. This varies because haemoglobin carrying oxygen absorbs light different to no haemoglobin carrying oxygen/carbon dioxide.Reasons to measure %Sp02: -Lack of fitness/excessive exertion in athlete-Need for oxygen supplement for pilot or climber-Respiratory/circulatory problems

Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons why such research is neededWhy blood is need:-fresh blood cannot store for long and many parts of the world lack equipment for storage-blood products can set0off immune responses in long-term use (rejection of blood even if same type)-can carry diseases such as HIVArtificial blood: a new area of current research. -Haemoglobin from animal blood can be purified and treated to make it disease-free and cannot cause allergic reaction or rejection.-Can be stored for years at room temp-Highly effective in carrying oxygen and releasing into tissues-Undergoing clinical trials, not yet approved.-Perfluorocarbon- Based Substitutes: another new area of research.-The development of a truly artificial substitute. Most promising-base chemicals are the 'perfluorocarbon' compounds.-Carries up to 5x more oxygen than blood-Can be stored indefinitely at room temp -Can be made totally sterile-5 different products are being tested and trialled (USA), not yet approved.

Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from donated blood and discuss the use of these products-Red cell concentrate: contains about 2x as many blood cells. Used to boost oxygen-carrying capacity of patients. For people with anaemia or after blood loss-Platelet concentration: to help blood clotting; for leukaemia sufferers of after sever blood loss.-White cell concentrate: boosts immune system; for severe infections-Plasma: boosts volume; for severe blood loss-Cryoprecipitate: part of plasma containing blood-clotting factors; used for sever haemorrhaging -Factor VIII and Monofix: extracts from plasma; used to treat people who have haemophilia 9when blood doesn't clot properly); allows people with this disorder to live normally.

Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials through plants in xylem and phloem tissuesXylem: -Function and structure:    -dead, hollow cells joined end to end   -reinforced with rings and spirals of lignin    -carries water and dissolved minerals UP from roots to leaves   -passive transport-Cause of transport of substances:   -transpiration: the evaporation of water from leaves; stomates must be open for this to occur   -cohesion: when a substance (water in this case) is strongly attached to itself. This causes a pulling effect when transpiration occurs.   -adhesion: when a substance is strongly attracted to other substances. e.g. glass with water. This assists in the transpirational stream because water 'climbs' against gravity along narrow tubes (capillaries)   -transpirational stream: when water is pulled upwards by transpiration and cohesionPhloem:-Function and structure:    -living cells joined end to end by perforated ends (sieve plates) so each is open to the next.    -phloem cell- filled with cytoplasm; companion cell- has mitochondria to provide energy for active transport   -flows in either direction; if photosynthesising: phloem carries nutrients to storage sites in root or stem. if not photosynthesising, phloem carries nutrients to leaves/flower/fruit   -carries nutrients (mainly glucose)-Cause of transport of substances:   -translocation: the transport of dissolved minerals depending on pressure   -sugars get carried in & out of phloem tubes by active transport   -water gets carried in & out phloem tubes by osmosis    -sugar solution moves to destination due to pressure differential    

Choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather first-hand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem 

Pg1

Pg2

Pg3

Pg4

Pg5