Henry VII Notes

How did Henry Tudor become King of England? Edward IV dies, leaving 12 year old Edward V as heir. Richard, Duke of Gloucester named Lord Protector - seizes throne, named Richard III. Henry Tudor = Lancastrian claimant, but weak claim as it lay through his mother. He spent 14 years in exile in Brittany. After Richard III murdered the 'princes in the tower', plots to replace him began. Margaret Beaufort and Elizabeth Woodville took part in conspiracy whereby Henry would marry Elizabeth of York. Battle of Bosworth = Henry led 500 exiles, 1.5k French soldiers to Wales. He was joined by Rhys ap Thomas and William ap Gruffudd. Commanded 5k troops going into the battle - Stanley family overwhelmed Richard and killed him.

How did Henry VII secure his position as King of England? Aims and character = wanted to remain King and secure the succession, often portrayed as a miser. Declared King by Lord Stanley at the Battle of Bosworth, immediately backdated his reign to before the battle - named opposition traitors. Issued proclamation making it clear that he was on the throne by the grace of God. Avoided marching straight to London, enabled a triumphant entry. Coronation designed to impress Englishmen and foreigners, but traditional sequence of events to show his right to be King. First Parliament = delayed, king by God not Parliament. Declared himself King by hereditary title. Passed and repealed Acts of Attainders. Granted tonnage and poundage for life. Act of Resumption to reclaim lands lost in the Wars of the Roses. Passed acts regarding law enforcement. Introduced oath of loyalty for royal household and members of Parliament. Marriage = needed papal dispensation as Elizabeth was a distant cousin. Propaganda - Tudor Rose formed. Threats to Henry's rule? Yorkist survivors: Earl of Warwick = Richard III's nephew, send to the Tower of London (executed with Warbeck.) Richard III's heir John de la Pole (Earl of Lincoln), pledged loyalty and joined the King's Council (killed at the Battle of Stoke.) Yorkist supporters: Earl of Surrey kept in prison until 1489. Duke of Northumberland released at the end of 1485 to prove loyalty by controlling the north of England. Demanded written promises of loyalty from Viscount Beaumont, breaching this carried a heavy fine. 1485 Stafford and Lovell rebellion: broke sanctuary in Colchester. Lovell headed north to delay the King, Staffords went to Worcestor to ignite a rebellion. Henry offered surrender and reconciliation or excommunication and death. This dispersed the rebellion. 1486 Welsh rebellion: Vaughans and Herberts attempted to kill Henry and seize Brecon Castle. Dispelled by Rhys ap Thomas, who was knighted. 1486-87 Lambert Simnel: Richard Symonds trained Simnel to impersonate Richard of York, amended to to Warwick later on. Symonds took him to Ireland, Lord Lieutenant Kildare and other nobles proclaimed Simnel Edward VI, supported by Margaret of Bergundy. She sent money and 2k soldiers led by Martin Schwartz. Henry responded by parading Warwick in the streets of London. 1487 Battle of Stoke, Henry led 12,000 troops against 8,000 of the Irish forces. All leaders killed within 3 hours, Symonds imprisoned for life, Simnel got a job in the royal kitchen, later promoted to be the King's falconer. Elizabeth crowned Queen to unite the nation. 1489 Yorkshire Rebellion: Parliament granted a subsidy of £100k but just £27k received. Earl of Northumberland expressed concerns about the tax, murdered upon his return. Sir John Egremont led rebellion, defeated by the Earl of Surrey - he was named Lieutenant in the area. 1491-1499 Perkin Warbeck: Arrived in Ireland pretending to be Richard, Duke of York. Charles VIII of France and Margaret of Bergundy involved in the plot. Henry sent a small army, Warbeck forced to flee to France. Treaty of Etaples meant Warbeck had to flee to Flanders. Henry waged economic warfare by placing an embargo on English cloth trade with Bergundy to cause economic distress. HRE Maximilian recognised Warbeck as Richard IV, but offered little. 1495, Warbeck attempted invasion in Kent, but couldn't even disembark. Sir William Stanley implicated. Welcomed to Scotland by James IV who offered shelter, money and a royal wife. Warbeck attempted another invasion, failed. Truce of Ayton signed 1497, Warbeck returned to Ireland - no support so arrived at Exeter with just a few thousand supporters. Here he gave himself up, but fled 1498. He was recaptured and put in the stocks. He was executed when found plotting with the Earl of Warwick. 1497 Cornish Rebellion: Parliament granted a subsidy to counter the threat from Warbeck, Cornwall refused to contribute. The impoverished Lord Audley led 15,000 men to Blackheath, London. Lord Daubeney slaughtered 1k rebels and the rest fled = only the ringleaders were executed by Henry. 1499-1506 Further Yorkist threats: Chief Claimant = Edmund de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk. He fled to France 1499, Henry persuaded him to return. 1501 he fled to the court of Maximilian. All of Suffolk's relations were imprisoned, 51 of those he was connected to were attained. 1506 Philip of Bergundy forced to take refuge in England due to storm. Persuaded to hand Suffolk over, as long as he would not be executed. His brother Richard de la Pole tried to gather support in Europe, but failed.

How did Henry VII rule over his Kingdom? Structure of society: Apex of the system was great landowners and senior churchmen, the base of the system laboured on their behalf. Growth of a professional and mercantile bourgeoisie in London, Norwich and Bristol. Nobility = 50/60 men. Gentry = 375 Knights in 1490, owned 15-20% of land. Esquires and mere gentry were more numerous. Churchmen = Bishops and some Abbots entitled to sit in the Lords. Commoners = small number of educated professionals, skilled tradesmen dominated the town councils/borough corporations, middle class Yeomen farmers farmed substantial properties. Relations with nobility: Stability depends on good relations between King and nobles, the Great Chain of Being. Wars of the Roses disturbed this enabling many nobles to become quasi-Kings in their own locality. Bindoff says he needed to suppress the magnate's abuse of power, while preseving the power itself. Size of the nobility: Few new lords created, small class is easier to control, made it more of an honour, and it was less costly as he could maintain his own estates instead. He created just 3 Earls, 1 Marquess, 1 Viscount, 8 Barons. Size of nobility fell due to natural extinction. ORder of the Garter = used more often, no financial obligation, given to 37 of his closest followers. Control of the major nobles: Henry kept the lands of extinct peerages such as Warwick, Clarence and Gloucester. He controlled marriages - Katherine Woodville fined £2000 for breaching this. Percy Earls of Northumberland and the Stafford Dukes of Buckingham kept under surveillance - Duke of Buckingham came into inheritance in 1485, restricted until 1498. Earl of Northumberland came into inheritance 1489, restricted until 1499. Fined Bishop Stanley £245,680 for retaining and fined Earl Stanley £1800 to keep the family under control. Use of patronage: Didn't try to buy loyalty, but rewarded loyalty and ability. Not just the nobility benefitted, seen by Edmund Dudley becoming a key advisor. Acts of Attainder: involves the loss of rights and family estate when convicted of treason. Used like a cat and mouse to punish disobedient nobles, and then revoke parts of the act based on loyalty. Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey released from prison in 1489 and put in charge of law and order in the North. Attainder was revoked 1489, received land back after putting down the Yorkshire rebellion. Sir William Stanley - implicated in the Warbeck conspiracy, Act of Attainder included £9k fine upfront and £1k per year from surrendered land. Financial threats: Manipulated the system of bonds and recognisances for good behaviour, written agreements whereby people had to pay lump sum of money as security for future good behaviour. Lord Dacre forced to pay £2000 1506. 1491 Marquess of Dorset had to give £10,000. Captain of Calais had to promise £40,000 to take up his position. Retaining: Needed it to suppress rebellions but do not want overmighty nobles. Laws passed against it 1487 and 1504, but never completely outlawed. Seen as a public relations exercise, as he passed an ineffectual law against it, but he did close some loopholes. Yet Buckingham and Northumberland still employed huge amounts of "estate officials". 1506 Lord Abergavenny fined £70,550 for retaining. Earl of Oxford did a military show to honour the King, fined £10,000 for retaining. The King's Council: Around 150 people, but active participants numbered around 40 people. Relied on a small core of John Morton (Lord Chancellor), Richard Fox (Lord Privy Seal) and John Dynam (Lord Treasurer). Other councillors such as Empson, Dudley and Poynings emerged later. Stability = Morton served 14 years until his death in 1501, while Fox served 22 years until the King died 1509. Small committees were set up within this - Court of Requests, Court of General Surveyors, Court of the Star Chamber etc. The King's Court: Cultivated personal image to command obedience and strengthen authority. Widespread illiteracy meant magnificent palaces, elaborate ceremonies and public spectacles were key propaganda devices. Council Learned in Law: Small and professional legal body responsible for wardships, marriages, inheritances and the collection of feudal dues. Criticised for lack of jury, even though this could be bribed. Detested as it was central to bonds and recognisances. Became feared under Empson and Dudley. Parliament: Met only to grant taxes and pass laws, met 7 times during Henry's reign (5 times during the first insecure decade.) Few meetings needed as his foreign policy avoided wars so less tax needed, didn't want to strain loyalty through excessive taxation. Acts: 10% related to JP's and control of the provinces. Other acts dealt with social discipline, vagabondage and corporations. Council of the North: based in the city of York, needed as so far away from London. As a frontier region, Henry had to entrust the defence of the border to great northern families. Earl of Surrey named Lieutenant after Earl of Northumberland's death. Henry was clearly in control of the Council, with the Bishop of Carlisle being appointed in order to protect the King's rights. Wales: Consisted of the Principality and the Marcher lordships (border areas.) Jasper Tudor appointed to govern Wales. 1493 revived council to govern Wales, named son Arthur as it's nominal head. Sir Rhys ap Thomas appointed to govern South Wales, William ap Gruffudd to rule the North. Ireland: Henry was Lord of Ireland. Geraldine family held the important positions of Lord Deputy and Chancellor of Ireland. 1494 Henry reorganised and named son Henry Lord Lieutenant and appointed Sir Edward Poynings as Lord Deputy. Poynings' Law established where any law passed in England would apply in Ireland, destroying the legislative independence of Irish Parliament. But majority of ruling was done through the Irish chieftains. Sheriffs: appointed annually from the local landowners. They kept the King's peace and was responsible for the arrest, detention and prosecution of criminals. Also organised and supervised parliamentary elections and organised the local milita. Justices of the Peace: appointed annually from the local landowners, around 18 per county. They were responsible for the defence of public order, implementing social and economic statutes such as wage regulation, dispensing justice (met in Quarter Sessions 4 times per year to try those for serious crimes.) Assizes Court held twice per year per county, presided over by professional judges under special crown commission. Extended power of JPs 1487, allowed to grant bail. Further expanded 1495, able to deal with corruption by removing suspect jurors. But JPs were limited as had to rely on lower officials (like High Constables an Petty Constables) so many crimes went unpunished, and the JPs could be overruled by Assizes Court or the King.

Domestic Policies of Henry VII Referred to as "the best businessmen ever to sit on the English throne", but merely solvent upon his death. Finance was important to him- to reward loyalty, bribe opposition and fund armies. Financial administration: Relied on Exchequer, subcontracting financial management = accurate but inefficient. 1493 Exchequer lost role in crown lands, return to chamber system - covered by Court of the General Surveyors. This raised crown land income from £11.7k in 1486 to £42k in 1508. Treasurer of the Chamber - Thomas Lovell 1485-92, Sir John Heron 1492-1509 = managed King's Jewel House; the private bank. Ordinary revenue: customs duties, crown lands, feudal dues, profits of justice. Increased from £45k per year to £88k per year through reform. Extraordinary revenue: parliamentary susbidies (£29k each), loans (raised £203k over his reign), benovolences (£48k to invade France), bonds and recognisances, feudal obligations (£30k for Arthur's posthumous knighthood), clerical taxes (£9k each), French pension (£159k). Domestic economy: most lived on subsistence farming, but enclosure beginning to take place. Industry dominated by wool and cloth. England traded, but profits not a major source of income. 90-95% trade = internal, extensive road network and lots of coastal trade (bulk carriage of coal from Newcastle, tin from Cornwall, grain from agricultural areas.) Towns: London largest city with 50k inhabitants. Urban areas centre for crafts and trades - urban guilds regulated entry, quality & wages. Towns were agricultural centres, places of exchange - regulated by burgesses (privileged members of the community - artisans and craftsmen). Trading companies/merchant adventurers - those from London took control of other towns, 1505 Henry granted them a charter to appoint a governor/24 assistants to run the organisation. Economic conditions: Based on quality of harvest, 1490s golden decade with 5 plentiful harvest and just 1 deficient, some bad years after this. Enclosure: Enabled sheep farming rather than arable crops, could properly divide land, could practice selective breeding. But this led to evictions, village depopulation and vagabondage. Passed law against it 1489, but irrelevant as enforcement left to landowners. Wool industry: accounted for 90% of all exports, in demand in Europe. Boom fuelled by increase in population - children could card the wool, women spin the wheel and men wove the fabric. Distributed by clothier who organises this process. Linen industry: Began in Lancashire based on local flax, also seen at a smaller scale in the Lake District and the Cotswolds. Other industries: Lead mining - Pennines, tin mining - Cornwall, brass making - Cumbria, smelting cast-iron - Sussex, coal mining etc. Changes to coinage: Introduced new designs and denominations - depicted with a closed crown (signifying Imperial power, like HRE Maximilian) Trade = £40k royal revenue in 1509. Development of shipping: Navigation Acts of 1485-86 forbade foreign ships when English available, reserved lucrative trade with Bordeaux for the English, wine could only be imported by 50%+ English crews. 1489 - only import in foreign ships when English ones aren't available. Navy: Henry left just 9 ships compared to 34 left in 1422. But ships were bigger, better equipped and more efficiently administered than before. Fortified naval base constructed at Portsmouth. Cloth trade: 1489 law - foreign merchants couldn't buy wool until English merchants bought all they wanted, illegal for foreigners to buy wool for foreign manufacturing. Exports of raw wool fell 30% between 1485-1509. Exports of woollen cloth rose 60% during this time. European trade centred in Antwerp, moved to Calais during the trade embargo. 1496 Magnus Intercursus: Englishmen had rights to sell throughout Bergundy without being taxed & right to impartial justice. 1506 Malus Intercursus: Free trade between England and Low Countries, English merchants free to use Philip's harbour/transport without charge, Philip's subjects to continue to pay English duties, Philip unable to impose any restrictions on English cloth. Never put into practice. Trade with France: 1487 France imposes restrictions as England supported Breton independence. 1492 agree to reduce trade restrictions under the Treaty of Etaples. 1495 France ended all trade restrictions to secure English neutrality in the Italian Wars. Trade with Italy/Mediterranean: Wanted to improve this to counter Venetian influence. Henry encourages English ships to import malmsey wine, Venetians impose huge tariff, Henry signed Treaty with Florence 1490 creation trading company in Pisa regarding English wool, Venetians waived all duty on English shipping fearing loss of access to this wool. Trade with Spain/Portugal: Trade link with Portugal renewed 1489. Henry confirmed Spanish tax exemptions would continue during his reign, despite the navigation acts, Spain responded to these acts by forbidding exports in foreign ships when Spanish ones were available. The Treaty of Medina del Campo 1489 finalised marriage alliance and ended such restrictions. Trade with the Baltics/Hanseatic League: Edward IV granted Hanseatic League exclusive access to Baltic ports in return for English access, the latter was not respected. Henry passed act saying Hanse cannot take money out of the country and English merchants could capture Hanse ships unpunished, Germans in London were often attacked. 1491 Conference regarding trade, nothing productive. 1489 Treaty with Denmark gave England right to fish in Icelandic water. Treaty with Riga temporarily damaged Hanse's monopoly, before it rejoined the League. 1504 settlement gave Hanseatic League all benefits previously given. Exploration: Rejected Christopher Columbus. Gave £50 to John Cabot who was looking for a Northern passage to the Far East - 1495 first voyage disaster due to wind, 1497 second voyage spotted Newfoundland, died on return journey. Sebastian Cabot 1508 seeking the North-West Passage, reached open water but likely to be Hudson Bay. Returned after Henry VII died.

Foreign Policies of Henry VII Goals = secure the throne, international recognition of his kingship, promote prosperity and to gain prestige. Start of reign: Henry owed Brittany for providing him shelter. Also owed France for shelter. Danger of Scottish invasion. Just controlled the area around Dublin. Margaret of Bergundy was an implacable enemy. Pope Innocent formally recognised his title. HRE Maximilian feared Henry due to his French support. Henry feared alliance between united Spain and France. Early treaties: 3 year truce with Scotland 1486. 1486 commercial treaty with Brittany. 1487 Treaty with Maximilian. Simnel: Attracted support from Ireland and Bergundy. Brittany: France wanted to incorporate Brittany, Duke Francis didn't want to give in to their demands. 1486 arranged for his daughter to marry Maximilian. French sent army 1488. Maximilian sent 1.5k, Ferdinand send 1k men, Henry was asked for help. Henry sent several hundred volunteer troops under Lord Scales. Bretons refused to compromise, 1488 Treaty of Sable promises Francis' daughter would not marry without French permission, acknowledged Brittany was a French vassal. Duke Francis died, French seized his daughter, Treaty of Redon signed sending 6k men to defend Brittany 1489, Spain sent 2k but soon withdrawn. France: 1491 called Parliament for double subsidy. Raised 26k men to cross the channel, but left late in the year to make it a short campaign. 1492 Treaty of Etaples: Charles promises no further aid to English rebels, arrears from the Treaty of Picquigny and French to pay the cost of interference in Brittany (5% of England's annual income.) Spain: 1489 Treaty of Medina del Campo = marriage alliance. 1495 League of Venice: intention to drive the French out of Italy, England not included as outside of sphere of influence. Ferdinand secured English entry and marriage stipulations. 1496 = commercial treaty with France and Magnus Intercursus with Bergundy. Warbeck: Gained support from Ireland, Scotland, France and Bergundy. Endangered marriage alliance as Ferdinand didn't want his daughter to marry an uncertain King. 1497 Truce of Ayton & marriage alliance through Margaret. Catherine of Aragon: Arrived 1501 with 100,000 crowns of her dowry. Death of Arthur: Within 5 weeks, Ferdinand instructed ambassador to secure marriage with Prince Henry. Formally concluded in 1502, papal dispensation granted 1504. Death of Elizabeth: Died in childbirth 1503. Considered a second wife, perhaps Joanna of Naples. Bergundy: Henry lent Philip money to finance an expedition to claim the throne of Castile, considered marrying his sister Margaret of Savoy, Henry kept Catherine's dowry despite end of marriage. 1506 Philip forced to take shelter, agreed treaty to hand over the Earl of Suffolk. Spain: Ferdinand attempted to takeover Castile after Philip's death 1506. Margaret of Savoy Regent to Archduke Charles in the Netherlands. Henry wanted to marry Joanna of Castile to maintain alliance of England, Castile and Bergundy - but Ferdinand refused proposal and refused to send the rest of the dowry. 1508 League of Cambrai: Wanted to create alliance between England, France and the Netherlands. Revoked the Malus Intercursus in pursuit of this, 1507 he convinced Maximilian to agree the marriage of Mary and Archduke Charles. League of Cambrai set up to finance a crusade against the Turks, but secretly an anti-Spanish alliance. Louis XII changed mind and bribed Ferdinand to join him. New anti-Venetian alliance set up including the Pope, Louis XII, Ferdinand, Maximilian and Archduke Charles. Isolated.

Religion and the Church under Henry VII Modus Vivendi established - the King ran the Church in England and the Church was loyal to the King, upholding the rule of law and confirming the sanctity of royal office through the coronation service. Church = biggest landowner, apart from the King, in England. Large organisation consisting of 10,000 regular clergy and 35,000 secular clergy. State within a state, system of law courts to deal with religious crimes such as adultery and heresy. Problem with Church: Many priests were illiterate and poorly educated. 75% of priests earned less than £15 per year while 2/3 of Bishops earned over £500 per year, therefore priests served in several parishes. 25% of parishes didn't have a resident clergyman, and clergy often seen involved in criminal activity and neglect. But Church = focal point of village life, most were devout followers. The wealth showed support by improving the parish church and building new ones. Henry's relationship with the Church: He was pious and held orthodox religious beliefs. Pope Innocent was the first foreign ruler to recognise Henry's claim to the throne, and he excommunicated those who rebelled against him. Henry the first English monarch to send an ambassador to Rome. Many priests were very talented and served in government - John Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury etc. Church provided substantial amounts of money from clerical taxation, loans and fines. Religious practice: Believed in original sin and the idea of indulgences in order to go to purgatory. Priest was central in determining the time spent in Purgatory - hear confessions of their sins and decide on penance, such as a pilgrimages. Church building projects funded by the laity - the dying often left money to ensure the benefactor would be remembered and to reduce time in Purgatory. Confraternity: Religious guilds or lay brotherhoods - provided funeral costs for the members, paid chaplains, helped maintain the Church and made charitable donation. Larger groups ran schools and almshouses. Religious orders - monastic orders, 1% of adult males were monks in 1500. Benedictines tended to operate large houses, Cistercians and Carthusians ran more zealous houses in remote areas. Friars worked among the lay community - Dominicans (black friars), Franciscans (grey friars) and the Augustinians. Nunneries enjoyed far less prestige, ran by those considered unsuitable for marriage. Lollardy: Originated from the followers of John Wycliffe from the Peasants' Revolt. Believed Christianity should be based on Bible, everyone should have a bible in their vernacular to interpret as they wish, a Priest is not needed, rejected transubstantiation, believed in predestination. Humanism: Wanted to purify the ideas of religion and to get rid of errors by demystifying primary texts. Erasmus visited England 1499 and was impressed by John Colet's teaching as the founder of St Paul's School. William Grocyn lectured at Oxford about Plato and Aristotle. Printing press brought over by William Caxton 1476, enabling English texts and translations, beginning of the standardisation of the Engligh language and circulation of Erasmian ideas. Henry used this to spread propaganda. Henry established a royal library and commissioned Polydore Vergil to write a history of England. Education: Song schools and reading schools provided elementary education. 53 new grammar schools founded between 1460-1509, Latin central to the curriculum. Cambridge founded several new colleges, benefiting from Lady Margaret Beaufort who set up Christ's College and St John's College. Music: Beginning of Renaissance as single-line chants gave way to polyphonic choral music, seen in the 1505 Eton Choirbook. Art and architecture: Most Churches built in Gothic perpendicular style. 1502 Henry approved this style for Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey. English culture still followed Gothic traditions of northern Europe and their primitive visual style.