UNIT 3

Halliday defined language as “an [blank_start]instrument[blank_end] of [blank_start]social[blank_end] interaction with a clear communicative [blank_start]purpose[blank_end]”.

Halliday defined communication as “the [blank_start]exchange[blank_end] and [blank_start]negotiation[blank_end] of information between at least two individuals through the use of [blank_start]verbal[blank_end] and nonverbal [blank_start]symbols[blank_end].”

Characteristics of the communication process:

• [blank_start]Addresser[blank_end]: the source of communication and who encodes the message. • [blank_start]Addressee[blank_end]: decodes and receives the message. • [blank_start]Context[blank_end]: situation that the addresser and addressee are in at the moment of the communication process. • [blank_start]Message[blank_end]: information that the addresser wants to transmit. • [blank_start]Channel[blank_end]: physical medium used to communicate. • [blank_start]Code[blank_end]: group of symbols and usage rules in which the message is expressed.

Match each language functions with its element: - Referential function: [blank_start]context[blank_end] - Emotive function: [blank_start]addresser[blank_end] - Conative function: [blank_start]addressee[blank_end] - Poetic function: [blank_start]message[blank_end] - Phatic function: [blank_start]channel[blank_end] - Metalinguistic function: [blank_start]code[blank_end]

Language function in "Tom, come here immediately!"

Language function in "He is the apple of my eye"

Language function in "Are you still there?"

Language functions in "Water, water everywhere, try to save it if you care”

Having analysed the language functions and how language is intrinsically linked with [blank_start]communication[blank_end], we must highlight the fact that all uses of language serve a specific [blank_start]function[blank_end]. Every time a speaker [blank_start]utters[blank_end] a sentence, there is an [blank_start]attempt[blank_end] to [blank_start]accomplish[blank_end] something through their [blank_start]message[blank_end].

Nevertheless, when using language there exist several [blank_start]difficulties[blank_end] which may affect [blank_start]successful[blank_end] communication. In order to overcome these communicative difficulties, speakers must work together to understand and be understood – a process which is known as [blank_start]negotiation of meaning[blank_end].

Negotiation of meaning can be thus defined as the process by which addresser and addressee interpret the utterance and adjust linguistic forms, grammatical structures or message content until they reach mutual understanding

Maxims of the cooperative principle: 1) [blank_start]Quantity[blank_end]: contributions must be just as informative as required. 2) [blank_start]Quality[blank_end]: contributions must be true; speakers must avoid saying what they believe to be false. 3) [blank_start]Relevance[blank_end]: contributions must be relevant to the current exchange. 4) [blank_start]Manner[blank_end]: speakers must be clear, avoid ambiguity and be brief and orderly.

Types of repairs: • [blank_start]Self-[blank_end]repairs: corrections made by the speakers themselves. • [blank_start]Listener[blank_end] repairs: the addressee decides to initiate corrections in order to make communication more understandable. • [blank_start]Unsuccessful[blank_end] repairs: meaningless corrections the addresser makes when the conversation is out of context or when the addressee finds it impossible to repairs the conversation and moves to a different topic. • [blank_start]Echoing[blank_end]: question made as an explanation when the message is not understood (e.g. sorry?).

On the one hand, according to the [blank_start]system of signs[blank_end] used, communication can be divided into two major categories: verbal and non-verbal. On the other hand, according to the [blank_start]exchange[blank_end] of information [blank_start]flow[blank_end], we must distinguish between: - One-way communication: the addressee does not respond to the addresser. E.g. reading a book, listening to radio programmes. - Two-way communication: there is an exchange of information between addresser and addressee. E.g. dialogues, interviews.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS: The process of communication involves two different processes: [blank_start]codification[blank_end] and de-codification, which are in charge of producing and interpreting linguistic [blank_start]signals[blank_end] in order to be recognized by individuals. In the [blank_start]codification[blank_end] process, the addresser conveys a message, codifying the information by means of an oral or written [blank_start]channel[blank_end]. On the contrary, in the de-codification process the [blank_start]addressee[blank_end] recognizes the content of the message put in a specific [blank_start]context[blank_end].

FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE: The culmination of language learning is the [blank_start]mastery[blank_end] of forms in order to accomplish the communicative functions of language. Thus, communication is a series of [blank_start]communicative acts[blank_end] used to accomplish particular [blank_start]purposes[blank_end]. This said, a function can be generally defined in linguistics as any of the [blank_start]roles[blank_end] that a linguistic form can fulfil in an [blank_start]utterance[blank_end]. There have been many attempts to classify the language functions. We will focus on [blank_start]Jakobson[blank_end]’s classification, who establishes six different functions of language.

Take for instance forming past tense of all verbs by adding -ed: *goed, maked.

Central to the concept of negotiation of meaning is the notion of [blank_start]implicature[blank_end], which deals with the [blank_start]explanation[blank_end] of how we come to understand more than what is explicitly said. [blank_start]Implicature[blank_end] has to do with what the speaker means or wants to communicate rather than what it is said.

COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE: Language is interpreted based on how effective [blank_start]communication[blank_end] is in daily situations, that is, how speakers and listeners [blank_start]cooperate[blank_end] and mutually [blank_start]agree[blank_end] with each other in order to be understood successfully. This was first introduced by [blank_start]Grice[blank_end], who established four conversational [blank_start]maxims[blank_end] in pursuit of effective communication.

minimize the expressions of belief which imply cost to other, and maximize those which imply benefit to other

minimize the expressions of self-praise, and maximize those of self-dispraise

[blank_start]Turn taking[blank_end] norms and conventions are in charge of the organization of the [blank_start]discourse[blank_end] among the speakers in a conversation. These norms will mainly depend on the type of [blank_start]speech[blank_end] event taking place.

REPAIRS: Communication involves the [blank_start]modification[blank_end] and [blank_start]correction[blank_end] of unsuccessful messages by the speaker, in order to clarify and ensure that these [blank_start]messages[blank_end] will be fully understood by the addressee.