Latin has four participles: Present Active, Perfect Passive, Future Active and Future Passive.  They are used far more extensively than participles in English. A. PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE 1. Form: Present Stem + -ns (lauda-ns, mone-ns, duce-ns, audie-ns, capie-nsetc.) 2. Declension: Since participles are verbal adjectives, they agree with nouns and have declensional endings.  The Present Active Participle is declined exactly like an i-stem 3rd Declension adjective except for the Ablative Singular, which ends in -einstead of -i. 3. Use: The tense of a participle is relative, not absolute: the tense into which it is translated depends on the tense of the main verb in the sentence.  Present Active Participles express action that occurs at the same time as the action of the main verb, regardless of what tense the main verb is in:  Caesar, piratas capiens, ab omnibus laudatur/laudabitur/laudabatur/laudatus est.   Caesar, capturing the pirates, is/will be/was being/was praised by everybody.  Laudamus/Laudabimus/Laudabamus/Laudavimus Caesarem piratas capientem.   We praise/will praise/were praising/praised Caesar capturing the pirates.  Dona Caesari piratas capienti damus/dabimus/dabamus/dedimus.   We give/will give/were giving/gave gifts to Caesar capturing the pirates. 4. Translation: There are any number of ways to translate a Latin participial phrase: by (a) an English participle, (b) a relative clause, (c) a temporal clause, or (d) a causal clause:  Laudamus Caesarem piratas capientem.   (a) We praise Caesar capturing the pirates.   (b) We praise Caesar, who is capturing the pirates.   (c) We praise Caesar when/while he is capturing the pirates.   (d) We praise Caesar because/since he is capturing the pirates.   B. PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE 1. Form: 4th Principal Part (laudatus, monitus, ductus, auditus, captusetc.) 2. Declension: Like that of the adjective magnus,-a,-um. 3. Use: The Perfect Participle is always passive in meaning, and expresses action that occurs before that of the main verb, regardless of the tense of the main verb:  Caesar, a piratis captus, ab omnibus laudatur/laudabitur/laudabatur/ laudatus est.   Caesar, (having been) captured by pirates, is/will be/was/has been praised by...  Laudamus/Laudabimus/Laudabamus/Laudavimus Caesarem a piratis captum.   We praise/will praise/were praising/have praised Caesar captured by pirates.  Dona Caesari a piratis capto damus/dabimus/dabamus/dedimus.   We give/will give/were giving/gave gifts to Caesar captured by pirates. 4. Translation: The same variety as in A4:  Laudamus Caesarem a piratis captum.   (a) We praise Caesar (having been) captured by pirates.   (b) We praise Caesar, who has been captured by pirates.   (c) We praise Caesar when/after he has been captured by pirates.   (d) We praise Caesar because/since he has been captured by pirates. NOTE that the Latin Perfect Particple functions exactly as the Perfect Participle in English (capture, captured, have captured), i.e. as an adjective: Virum captum laudo (I praise the captured man.)  C. FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE 1. Form: Stem of 4th Principal Part + -urus,-a,-um (laudaturus, moniturus, ducturus, auditurus, capturu). 2. Declension: Like that of the adjective magnus,-a,-um. 3. Use: The Future Active Participle expresses action that occurs after the action of the main verb, regardless of the tense of the main verb:  Caesar, piratas capturus, ab omnibus laudatur/laudabitur/laudabatur/ laudatus est.   Caesar, about to capture the pirates, is/will be/was being/was praised by...  Laudamus/Laudabimus/Laudabamus/Laudavimus Caesarem piratas cap-turum.   We praise/will praise/were praising/praised Caesar about to capture the pirates.  Dona Caesari piratas capturo damus, dabimus, dabamus, dedimus.   We give/will give/were giving/gave gifts to Caesar about to capture the pirates. 4. Translation: Same variety as A4:  Laudamus Caesarem piratas capturum.   (a) We praise Caesar about/going to capture the pirates.   (b) We praise Caesar who is about/going to capture the pirates.   (c) We praise Caesar when he is about/going to capture the pirates.   (d) We praise Caesar because/since he is about/going to capture the pirates.  D. FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE 1. Form: Present Stem + -ndus,-a,-um(laudandus, monendus, ducendus,  audiendus, capiendus) 2. Declension: Like magnus-a,-um. 3. Use: The same as C3, except that the Future Passive Participle is passive, not active:  Caesar, a piratis capiendus, ab omnibus laudatur/laudabitur/laudabatur/ laudatus est.   Caesar, about to be captured by pirates, is/will be/was being/was praised by...  Laudamus/Laudabimus/Laudabamus/Laudavimus Caesarem a piratis capiendum.   We praise/will praise/were praising/praised Caesar about to be captured by...  Dona Caesari a piratis capiendo damus/dabimus/dabamus/dedimus.   We give/will give/were giving/gave gifts to Caesar about to be captured by... 4. Translation: The same as A4:  Laudamus Caesarem a piratis capiendum.   (a) We praise Caesar about/going to be captured by pirates.   (b) We praise Caesar who is about/going to be captured by pirates.   (c) We praise Caesar when he is about/going to be captured by pirates.   (d) We praise Caesar because/since he is about/going to be captured by...  E. ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES Note how the participles below are translated in relation to the tense of the main verbs:  Caesarem piratas capientem [PR] laudat [PR].   He praises Caesar while he is capturing the pirates.  Oratorem de piratis dicentem [PR] laudavimus [PF].   We praised the orator because he was talking about pirates.  Auxilium ad Caesarem piratas capturum [FUT ACT] mittimus [PR].   We send help to Caesar, who is going to capture the pirates.  Pecuniam Caesari piratas capiendo [FUT ACT] dedit [PF].   He gave money to Caesar, who was about to capture the pirates.  Oratorem a piratis interfactum [PF] laudavisti [PF].   You praised the orator after he had been killed by pirates.  Romani hostibus victis [PF] saepe ignoscuerunt [PF].   The Romans often spared conquered enemies.  Pecuniam ad Caesarem mittendam [F PASS] non invenire possumus [PR].   We can't find the money that is going to be sent to Caesar.  Oratores interficiendos [FUT PASS] nemo scivit [PF].   Nobody knew the orators who were going to be killed.  Haec dicta [PF] omnes cognoscerunt [PF].   Everyone understood these things after they had been spoken.

50 Common Latin Phrases Every College Student Should Know http://oedb.org/library/beginning-online-learning/50-common-latin-phrases-every-collegestudent-should-know While there may not be cites and countries full of people speaking Latin these days, that doesn't mean the ancient language is something you can just forget about. Not only are many of our words in English (not to mention many other languages) derived from Latin, but many of its words words are still used in today's daily speaking and writing. So while you may not need to learn to speak or read the Latin language fluently, it can still be a big help in your quest for higher education to know a few words and phrases. Here are some of the most commonly used Latin expressions that you should learn to start improving your personal lexicon. Must-Learn Terms If you don't know these Latin terms, get to learning them ASAP, as they are commonly used in speaking and writing and may be hard to avoid. 1. Per se: The direct translation of this term is "by itself" and it means just that when used in English as well. You could use it to say that you don't find chemistry boring per se (by itself, intrinsically), but this professor's voice puts you to sleep. 2. Vice versa: From the Latin meaning "to change" or "turn around," this term means to reverse the order of something. This quote from Samuel Butler provides an example, "In the midst of vice we are in virtue, and vice versa." 3. Alma mater: If you don't know this term already, you'll become quite familiar with it once you graduate from college. The literal translation is "dear/bountiful mother" but you'll find it used in everyday language to denote the college or university from which one has graduated. 4. Magnum opus: Whether it's in writing, painting, sculpture or music, this Latin term denotes the greatest work done by an artist-- a true masterpiece. 5. Bona fide: While it's literal translation means "good faith" this term has a few different shades of meaning in modern language. In legal terms, it is used to represent something that is presented without deception or fraud, or literally in good faith, honest, sincere and lawful. It is more commonly used to mean something that's the real deal or truly authentic. 6. Quasi: In Latin, this word means as if or as though and in English it is used as both an adjective in its own right and as a part of a compound word. It simply designates something that resembles something else but doesn't quite have all the same features. 7. Alter ego: Cicero coined this term, most likely taken from the Greek, to mean "a second self" or "another I" and its modern meaning hasn't changed much today. Many people have an alter ego, or another, perhaps hidden aspect of themselves. One example from popular culture is Beyonce's alter ego, Sasha Fierce.  8. Verbatim: If you repeat something verbatim you repeat it in exactly the same words, word for word with no changes and no improvisation. 9. Status quo: From the Latin meaning "the state in which" this term is used today to designate the existing state or condition of things. For example, if you're making money off of a high pollution industry it is to your interests to maintain the status quo when it comes to environmental law. Writing Knowing just what these terms and words mean can be a big help in improving your reading comprehension. 10. Sic: Found in writing, this Latin word most commonly finds a home in brackets (like this: [sic]) when quoting a statement or writing. It indicates that there is a spelling or grammar error (or just something out of the ordinary) in the original quotation and that the publication has only reproduced it faithfully, not made an error of their own. 11. Id est: You've likely seen this term in writing before, even if you weren't aware as it is commonly abbreviated to i.e. In Latin, it means "that is" and is used in English when the speaker or writer wants to give an example or explanation that specifies a statement. 12. Deus ex machina: In direct translation, this term means, "God out of a machine" and it harkens back ancient Greek and Roman plays. When the plot would become too tangled or confusing, the writers would simply bring in God, lowered in via a pulley system (the machine) and he would wrap it all up. Today, it's still used in literature to describe a plot where an artificial or improbable means of resolving a conflict is used. 13. Exempli gratia: You'll often see this term abbreviated to e.g. in writing. It means "for the sake of example" and when it see it in a sentence you can expect that is will be followed by some examples. 14. Et cetera: Few out there aren't familiar with this term but may not know it as well when it's spelled out like this and not abbreviated as etc. Meaning "and the others" it is used to denote that a list of things could continue ad infinitum (see below for definition) and that for the sake of brevity it's better to just wrap things up with a simple etc. 15. Ex libris: Back in the days when books were rarer and more expensive commodities than they were today, it was common to mark your books with a label bearing your own name and this phrase which means "from the library of." While not as common today, some true bibliophiles still use the labels. 16. Ibidem: Another abbreviated term, this word is more commonly seen in research writing in the form of "ibid." From the Latin for "in the same place" it is found in footnotes and bibliographies to designate that the same source has been cited twice in succession. 17. Et alii: You're unlikely to encounter this Latin phrase in its unabbreviated form, and will most likely only ever see it as et al when included. This is also a term that is found in footnotes and bibliographies which allows writers to refer to a large number of authors without having to write each name out (for example, you could say that your source is Dr. Henry Jones et al.) Everyday Talk You've likely heard these words and phrases on the news or in conversations, and if you didn't know what they meant then, these definitions will help make it clear now. 18. Ad infinitum: You might be able to guess what this phrase means simply through its similarity to the word we use in English. It means "to infinity" and can be used to describe something that goes on, seemingly or actually endlessly, as some students might feel about certain classes. 19. De facto: In Latin, de facto means "from the fact" and in use in English it is often used to distinguish was is supposed to be the case from what is actually the reality. For example, legally, employers are not allowed to discriminate in hiring because of age, but many still practice de facto (in reality, in fact) discrimination. 20. In toto: No, this phrase doesn't mean that the cute little dog from The Wizard of Oz ate something, it means in all or entirely. Think of it as saying "in total" in a really weird voice. 21. Ipso facto: Meaning "by the fact itself" this commonly used and misused term is denotes when something is true by its very nature. For example, if you don't feed your dog you are ipso facto a bad owner. 22. Tabula rasa: When you were a child, your mind might have been more of a tabula rasa than it is today. This Latin phrase means "clean slate" and denotes something or someone not affected by experiences and impressions. 23. Terra firma: Those who hate to fly or get seriously seasick will be able to put this term to good use. It means firm ground, and you might be thanking your lucky stars to be back on it after a trip through the air or rough waters. 24. Mea culpa: If you want to admit your own guilt or wrongdoing in a situation, use this Latin phrase that translates literally to "my fault." It's a bit like a fancier, less outdated way of saying "my bad." 25. Persona non grata: From the Latin meaning an "unacceptable person" this term designates someone who's no longer welcome in a social or business situation. 26. In situ: If something happens in situ it happens in place or on site, though the term often designates something that exists in an original or natural state. Like a rare species sighted in situ or an invaluable artifact found on an archeological site. 27. In vitro: Most students will be familiar with this term because of modern fertility treatments, but have you ever considered what the term actually means? In Latin, in vitro means "in glass" and any biological process that occurs in the laboratory rather than in the body or a natural setting can be called in vitro. 28. In vivo: While an experiment taking place in a glass test tube might not cause a stir, many are up in arms about this kind of experimentation. In vivo means "within the living" and the two most common examples of this kind of experimentation are animal testing and clinical trials. 29. Ante bellum: During your history courses, you're bound to encounter this term. It means in the most basic sense "before the war" and while it can be applied to any 4 war it is most commonly used to refer to the American Civil War and the Antebellum Era the preceded it. Arguments and Logic Representing arguments as old as philosophy itself and the terms associated with them, these terms are good to know for a well-rounded education. 30. A priori: You might come across this term in classes about logic or reasoning. It means taking a general law or idea and applying it to a particular instance without needing experimentation or observation. An example of an a priori statement that is used is, "all bachelors are single." You do not need to observe this to see that it is true because, by definition, bachelors must be single. 31. A posteriori: A posteriori arguments are different than a priori because they are based on actual observation or experimentation. Continuing on the previous example, an a posteriori example of reasoning might be that "some bachelors are happy." This can be based on real life observation isn't a given based on what a bachelor is. 32. Ad nauseam: This Latin term is used to describe an argument that has been taking place to the point of nausea, often with the same arguments being rehashed over and over for years until everyone, except a select few, are simply sick to death of the whole thing. 33. Ergo: Simply put, ergo means therefore and you can exchange it with therefore or hence in any sentence and maintain the same meaning. For example, you could say, "I think, ergo I am" without changing the meaning of the original. Legal Language One place where Latin words are very commonly used is in the courtroom. Learn some of these basic legal words to help you better understand Law and Order and how the legal process works. 34. Compis mentis: Meaning "in command of one's mind" this term is used in the legal field to denote someone who is competent to stand trial and not encumbered by mental illness or handicap. 35. Subpoena: If you've ever watched a legal drama on TV, you've more than likely heard this term thrown around but perhaps haven't given much thought as to what it really means. The word subpoena comes from the Latin meaning "under penalty" and if someone delivers a subpoena to you have to respond or they'll be some big penalties under the law. 36. Ad hominem: In court, or outside of it for that matter, this term is used to designate an argument that attacks someone's character rather than addressing a question or issue at hand. By attacking character, these arguments appeal to emotions and prejudices rather than reason or logic. 37. Habeas corpus: A writ of habeas corpus (literally, have the body) requires a person to appear before the court in person, generally to ascertain whether or not the 5 detention of that person is lawful. Habeas corpus cannot be suspended unless there is reason to believe that a person could pose a danger to the public. 38. Pro bono: Pro bono means "for the good" and it's a term used to designate when something is done free of charge. While the term can be applied in any field, it is most commonly used to describe legal services. 39. Mens rea: There is a big difference between murder and manslaughter, and mens rea is what separates the two. Mens rea means "guilty mind," and those who go into a crime intending to commit it have it, differing from those who commit a crime accidentally or without advance planning. Business It's always good to know the language of business, especially in such a competitive market. No matter what field you enter, you're bound to hear these words at some point in your career. 40. Ad hoc: From the Latin meaning "to this," this term gained popularity in the mid1600s and it still used today. It refers to something that is formed or done quickly to meets the needs of a particular problem or issue without regard to a more general application and generally lacking advance planning. 41. Per diem: Meaning "by the day" a per diem in most uses today designates a daily allowance used in traveling for work. It can also mean a per-day rate or that someone is paid on a daily basis. Other common similar terms are per annum (by the year) and per capita (by the person.) 42. Curriculum vitae: A curriculum vitae is basically a fancy way to describe a resume. While it means literally "the course of one's life" the terms is applied to mean a short list of your accomplishments and training-- something any grad will need to think about putting together soon. 43. Pro rata: This Latin phrase is something you're likely familiar with in everyday life. It means to charge at a proportional rate. So if a service is $100 for 10 hours, then one would cost $10 pro rata. 44. Quid pro quo: While Anthony Hopkins so sinisterly used this phrase in The Silence of the Lambs, in everyday life it's often used to describe an exchange of value necessary for a contract to take place. From the Latin meaning "this for that," it gets used in everywhere from the courtroom to the bedroom in modern English. Quotes and Sayings These quotes and sayings in Latin get tossed around, put on bumper stickers and repeated in conversations so they're well-worth knowing. 45. Carpe diem: This well-known phrase comes from a poem by Horace. While there have been arguments about the exact translation, it is most commonly held to mean "seize the day" encouraging individuals to live life to the fullest today without expectation of a tomorrow. 46. Cogito ergo sum: Translated from the Latin, the quote means "I think, therefore I am" and comes from the writing of philosopher Rene Descartes. 6 47. Veni, vidi, vici: These famous words were purported uttered by Roman emperor Julius Caesar after a short war with Pharnaces II of Pontus. Translated, it means "I came, I saw, I conquered" an adage you can hopefully keep in mind come finals time. 48. In vino veritas: If you're old enough to drink or have been around others who have imbibed, you're more than likely already familiar with the wisdom behind this quote from Pliny the Elder meaning, "in wine there is the truth." It is often followed up with "in aqua sanitas" or "in water there is health"-- something all college students should remember. 49. E pluribus unum: Simply take a look at American currency to see this Latin phrase in use. It means "out of many, one" and is found on anything bearing the seal of the United States. 50. Et tu, Brute?: These are the famous last words of Julius Caesar after he is murdered by his friend Marcus Brutus in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. They mean "Even you, Brutus?" and are used poetically today to designate any form of the utmost betrayal.

Level 2: MYTHOLOGY Jason and Medea Jason was the commander of the Argo and hero of the Golden Fleece. Medea was a powerful sorceress, and daughter of the King of Colchis. When Jason and the Argonauts reached Colchis in search of the Golden Fleece, Medea fell hopelessly in love with him. In return for Jason's pledge of everlasting fidelity, Medea used her magic gifts to enable him to deceive her father and obtain the fleece. Medea then sailed away from Colchis with Jason, taking her young brother with her. To escape from pursuit, Medea killed her brother and scattered his remains on the sea. The king stopped to gather them up, and the delay enabled Jason and his party to escape. Jason and Medea sailed to Greece, but after Medea murdered Jason's evil uncle, the couple fled to Corinth where their two sons were born. They lived happily there until Jason fell in love with the daughter of King Creon. In revenge for Jason‘s betrayal, Medea killed their sons. In despair over her loss, Medea threw herself into the river and drowned. Jason‘s life came to an end soon after, when he was walking on the beach and stepped on a nail that has once been part of the Argo. Odysseus Odysseus was a Greek hero, ruler of the island of Ithaca, and one of the leaders of the Greek army during the Trojan War. Homer's Odyssey recounts Odysseus's adventures and his return home ten years after the fall of Troy. Initially, Odysseus was mentioned as the son of Laertes, king of Ithaca, although in later tradition Sisyphus, the king of Corinth, was considered his real father. At first Odysseus refused to accompany the Greeks to Troy, feigning madness by sowing his fields with salt, but the Greeks placed his son Telemachus in front of the plow, and Odysseus was compelled to admit his ruse and join the invading army. Throughout the Iliad of Homer, he is portrayed as a brave warrior, and he was awarded the armor of the hero Achilles on the latter's death. Odysseus was responsible for bringing the Greek heroes Neoptolemus and Philoctetes to Troy for the final stage of the conflict. In the Odyssey it is said that he proposed the stratagem of the Trojan horse, the means by which Troy was conquered. Perseus Perseus is slayer of the Gorgon Medusa, and son of Zeus and Danaë. Warned that he would be killed by his grandson, Acrisius locked mother and child in a chest and cast them into the sea. They drifted to the island of Seriphus, where they were rescued and where Perseus grew to manhood. The King of Seriphus fell in love with Danaë, and fearing that Perseus might interfere with his plans, sent him to procure the head of Medusa, a monster whose glance turned men to stone. Aided by Hermes, messenger of the gods, Perseus made his way to the Gray Women, three old hags who shared one eye between them. Perseus took their eye and refused to return it until they gave him directions for reaching the nymphs of the north. From the nymphs he received winged sandals, a magic wallet that would fit whatever was put into it, and a cap to make him invisible. Equipped with a sword from Hermes that could never be bent or broken and a shield from the goddess Athena, which would protect him from being turned to stone, Perseus found Medusa and killed her. Invisible in his cap, he was able to escape the wrath of her sisters and with her head in the wallet flew on his winged sandals toward home. As he was passing Ethiopia, he rescued the princess Andromeda from a sea monster and took her as his wife. At Seriphus, Perseus freed his mother from the King by using Medusa's head to turn the king and his followers to stone. All then returned to Greece, where Perseus accidentally killed his grandfather Acrisius with a discus, thus fulfilling the prophecy. Theseus Theseus was the greatest Athenian hero, being the son of the king of Athens and the daughter of the king of Troezen. Theseus was brought up in Troezen, and at the age of 16 he went to Athens to claim Aegeus as his father. The young man chose to make the hazardous journey by land, clearing the road of bandits and monsters. Among the villains whom Theseus killed were Sciron, Sinis, and Procrustes. Theseus arrived in Athens wearing a sword and a pair of sandals that Aegeus had left for his son in Troezen. Medea, Aegeus's wife, attempted to poison Theseus, but Aegeus recognized his son and heir and banished Medea. Theseus‘s early adventures included his encounter with the Minotaur, a monster who was confined in a labyrinth under the palace of Minos, king of Crete. With the help of Ariadne, Minos's daughter, Theseus killed the Minotaur and escaped from the maze. On his return to Athens however, he forgot to hoist a white sail signaling his success against the Minotaur. Aegeus, seeing a black sail, believed his son dead and threw himself from a rocky height into the sea. As king of Athens, Theseus was wise and generous, but he retained his love of danger and adventure. He abducted the Amazon Hippolyta, who bore him a son. He took part in the Calydonian boar hunt and in the quest of the Argonauts for the Golden Fleece. He was a devoted friend of Pirithous, king of the Lapithae, whom he accompanied to the underworld to rescue the goddess Persephone. Both men were imprisoned by the god Hades for their rash deed, but Theseus was subsequently rescued by Hercules. Returning to Athens, Theseus found his kingdom in disarray, torn by rebellion and corruption. Unable to reestablish authority, he sent his children away and sailed to the island of Skyros, where Lycomedes, king of Skyros, murdered him by throwing him from a cliff into the sea. Later the Delphic oracle commanded the Athenians to gather Theseus's bones and bring them back to Athens. The Athenians then paid him great honor by building him a tomb dedicated to the poor and helpless who he had befriended. Daedalus Daedalus was the Athenian architect and inventor who designed the labyrinth for King Minos of Crete. It was built as a prison for the Minotaur, a man-eating monster. The labyrinth was so skillfully designed that no one who entered it could escape from the Minotaur. Daedalus only revealed the secret of the labyrinth to Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, and she aided Theseus who staid the Minotaur and escaped. Angered at the escape, Minos imprisoned Daedalus and his son Icarus in the labyrinth. Although the prisoners could not find the exit, Daedalus made wax wings so that they could both fly out. Unfortunately Icarus flew too near the sun; his wings melted, and he fell into the sea. Daedalus flew on to Sicily where he was welcomed by King Cocalus. Minos later pursued Daedalus but was killed by the daughters of Cocalus. Minotaur The Minotaur was monster with the head of a bull and the body of a man. It was the offspring of Pasiphaë, queen of Crete, and a snow-white bull the god Poseidon had sent to Pasiphaë's husband, King Minos. When Minos refused to sacrifice the beast, Poseidon made Pasiphaë fall in love with it. After she gave birth to the Minotaur, Minos ordered the architect and inventor Daedalus to build a labyrinth so intricate that escape from it without assistance would be impossible. Here the Minotaur was confined and fed with young human victims Minos forced Athens to send him as tribute. The Greek hero Theseus was determined to end the useless sacrifice and offered him as one of the victims. When Theseus reached Crete, Minos's daughter Ariadne fell in love with him. She helped him escape by giving him a ball of thread, which he fastened to the door of the maze and unwound as he made his way through it. When he came upon the sleeping Minotaur, he beat the monster to death and then led the other sacrificial youths and maidens to safety by following the thread back to the entrance. Chimera The Chimera was a fire-breathing monster that had the head of a lion, the body of a she-goat, and the tail of a dragon. It terrorized Lycia, a region in Asia Minor, but was finally killed by the Greek hero Bellerophon. Cerberus Cerberus was the three-headed, dragon-tailed dog that guarded the entrance to the lower world, or Hades. The monster permitted all spirits to enter Hades, but would allow none to leave. Only a few heroes ever escaped Cerberus's guard; the great musician Orpheus charmed it with his lyre, and the Greek hero Hercules captured it bare-handed and brought it for a short time from the underworld to the regions above. In Roman mythology both the beautiful maiden Psyche and the Trojan prince Aeneas were able to pacify Cerberus with a honey cake and thus continue their Put together by MODG LS students for use of families in MODG only – Do not distribute without permission from MODG. journey through the underworld. Cerberus is sometimes pictured with a mane of snakes and 50 heads. Charon Charon was the son of Night and Erebus. Charon was the aged boatman who ferried the souls of the dead across a river separating the world of the living from the world of the dead and brought them to the gates of the underworld. The river has traditionally been identified as the Styx, but early Greek writers called it the Acheron. Charon would admit to his boat only the souls of those who had received the rites of burial and whose passage had been paid with a coin placed under the tongue of the corpse. Those who had not been buried were not admitted to Charon‘s boat, and were doomed to wait beside the river for 100 years. Prosperina Persephone was the daughter of Zeus and of Demeter, goddess of the earth and of agriculture. Hades, god of the underworld, fell in love with Persephone and wished to marry her. Although Zeus gave his consent, Demeter was unwilling. Hades, therefore, seized the maiden as she was gathering flowers and carried her off to his realm. As Demeter wandered in search of her lost daughter, the earth grew desolate. All vegetation died, and famine devastated the land. Finally Zeus sent Hermes, the messenger of the gods, to bring Persephone back to her mother. Before Hades would let her go, he asked her to eat a pomegranate seed, the food of the dead. She was thus compelled to return to the underworld for one-third of the year. As both the goddess of the dead and the goddess of the fertility of the earth, Persephone was a personification of the revival of nature in spring. The Eleusinian Mysteries were held in honor of her and her mother. Proserpine was the Latin counterpart of Persephone. Styx The Styx was the river entrance to the underworld. It was often described as the boundary river over which the aged ferryman Charon transported the shades of the dead. The River Styx was personified as a daughter of the Titan Oceanus, and Styx was the guardian of the sacred oaths that bound the gods. The actual river, the modern name of which is the Mavronéri, is in northeastern Arcadia, Greece. It plunges over a 183-m (600-ft) cliff, then flows through a wild gorge. The ancient Greeks believed that its waters were poisonous, and the river was associated with the underworld from the time of Homer. Pluto Hades was god of the dead, son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea, and the brother of Zeus and Poseidon. When the three brothers divided up the universe after they had deposed their father, Hades was awarded the underworld. With his queen Persephone, whom he had abducted from the world above, he ruled the kingdom of the dead. Although he was a grim and pitiless god, unappeased by either prayer or sacrifice, he was not evil. In fact, he was known also as Pluto, lord of riches, because both crops and precious metals were believed to come from his kingdom below ground. The underworld itself was often called Hades. It was divided into two regions: Erebus, where the dead pass as soon as they die, and Tartarus, the deeper region, where the Titans had been imprisoned. It was a dim and unhappy place, inhabited by vague forms and shadows and guarded by Cerberus, the three-headed, dragon-tailed dog. Sinister rivers separated the underworld from the world above, and the aged boatman Charon ferried the souls of the dead across these waters. Somewhere in the darkness of the underworld Hades' palace was located. It Put together by MODG LS students for use of families in MODG only – Do not distribute without permission from MODG. was represented as a many-gated, dark and gloomy place, thronged with guests, and set in the midst of shadowy fields and apparition-haunted landscapes. In later legends the underworld is described as the place where the good are rewarded and the wicked punished.

Level 2: Ancient Roman History Augustus Augustus (63 BC- AD 14), first emperor of Rome (27 BC-AD 14), who restored unity and orderly government to the realm after nearly a century of civil wars. He presided over an era of peace, prosperity, and cultural achievement known as the Augustan Age. In 27 BC the Roman Senate gave Octavian the title Augustus (―consecrated,‖ or ―holy‖) by which he is known, and his reign has often been considered a dyarchy because of the Senate‘s participation in it. Hannibal Hannibal (general) (247-183 BC), Carthaginian general, son of Hamilcar Barca, whose march on Rome from Spain across the Alps in 218-217 BC remains one of the greatest feats in military history. He almost defeated Rome, winning many battles in Italy, but the inability of Carthage to get him reinforcements eventually led to his defeats in Italy, and eventually at the Battle of Zama. Caesar, Gaius Julius Caesar, Gaius Julius (100-44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman, who laid the foundations of the Roman imperial system. He was famous for his conquering of Gaul, his rise to power, and his crossing of the Rubicon, which lead to his taking control of the Roman government. He was assassinated by a plot led by Cassius and Brutus. Cleopatra Cleopatra (69-30 BC), ill-fated queen of Egypt (51-30 BC), was the daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes, king of Egypt. Caesar proclaimed her queen of Egypt. She married Mark Antony. Antony, Mark Antony, Mark (Latin Marcus Antonius) (83?-30 BC), Roman statesman and general, who defeated the assassins of Julius Caesar and, with Gaius Octavius and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, formed the Second Triumvirate, which ultimately secured the end of the Roman Republic. He fought for power with Caesar‘s heir, Octavian. He committed suicide by falling in his sword. Spartacus Spartacus (died 71 BC) was Roman slave and gladiator, born in Thrace. He is thought to have been a deserter from the Roman army, and he was sold as a slave to a trainer of gladiators at Capua. In 73 BC he escaped with other runaway gladiators and took refuge on Mount Vesuvius, where he was joined by large numbers of escaped slaves. As leader of the historic insurrection of Roman slaves known as the Third Servile War, or Gladiators' War, he defeated two Roman armies, and his forces overran southern Italy. In 72 BC he defeated three more Roman armies and reached Cisalpine Gaul, where he planned to disperse his followers to their homes. They decided to remain in Italy for the sake of plunder, and Spartacus marched south again. In 71 BC the Roman commander Marcus Licinius Crassus forced Spartacus and his followers into the narrow peninsula of Rhegium (now Reggio di Calabria), from which, however, they escaped through the Roman lines. Crassus then pursued Spartacus to Lucania, where the rebel army was destroyed and Spartacus was killed in battle. Punic Wars Punic Wars, name given to the three wars between Rome and Carthage in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. The adjective Punic (Latin Punicus) is derived from Poeni, the name by which the Carthaginians, being of Phoenician descent, were known to the Romans. The First Punic War (264-241 BC) was the outcome of growing political and economic rivalry between the two nations. It was initiated when a band of Campanian mercenary soldiers (Mamertines), besieged in the city of Messana (now Messina), in Sicily, requested aid from both Rome and Carthage against Hiero II, king of Syracuse. Carthage already controlled part of Sicily, and the Romans, responding to this request with the intention of driving the Carthaginians from the island, provoked a declaration of war. After building their first large navy, the Romans defeated a Carthaginian fleet off the Sicilian port of Mylae (see Mylae, Battle of) in 260 BC, but failed to capture Sicily. In 256 BC a Roman army under Roman general Marcus Atilius Regulus established a base in North Africa, but the following year the Carthaginians forced it to withdraw. For the next 13 years the war was fought in the area of Sicily. It ended with a major naval victory for the Romans in 241 BC. Sicily was then ceded to the Romans, who also seized the Carthaginian islands of Sardinia and Corsica in 237 BC. Hamilcar Barca, a distinguished Carthaginian general of the First Punic War, devoted the remainder of his life to building up Carthaginian power in Spain to compensate for the loss of Sicily. His son Hannibal became commander of the Carthaginian forces in this area in 221 BC, and in 219 BC he attacked and captured Saguntum, a Spanish city allied with Rome. This act brought on the Second Punic War (218-201 BC). In the spring of 218 BC Hannibal swiftly marched a large army through Spain and Gaul and across the Alps to attack the Romans in Italy before they could complete their preparations for war. He crossed the dangerous mountains and secured a firm position in northern Italy. By 216BC he had won two major victories, at Lake Trasimeno and the town of Cannae, and reached southern Italy. In spite of his requests, Hannibal received insufficient reinforcements and siege weapons from Carthage until 207 BC, when his brother Hasdrubal left Spain with an army to join him. Hasdrubal crossed the Alps, but in a battle at the Metaurus River, in northern Italy, he was killed and his troops defeated. Meanwhile, the Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, known as Scipio Africanus the Elder, had totally defeated the Carthaginians in Spain, and in 204 BC he landed an army in North Africa. The Carthaginians recalled Hannibal to Africa to defend them against Scipio. Leading an army of untrained recruits, he was decisively defeated by Scipio at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. This battle marked the end of Carthage as a great power and the close of the Second Punic War. The Put together by MODG LS students for use of families in MODG only – Do not distribute without permission from MODG. Carthaginians were compelled to cede Spain and the islands of the Mediterranean still in their possession, relinquish their navy, and pay an indemnity to Rome. In the 2nd century BC, however, Carthage continued to be commercially successful and, though only a minor power, a source of irritation to Rome. The Romans were further incited by the speeches of the censor Cato the Elder, who demanded Delenda est Carthago (―Carthage must be destroyed‖). A minor Carthaginian breach of treaty gave the pretext for the Third Punic War (149-146 BC), in which the Romans, led by Scipio the Younger, captured the city of Carthage, razed it to the ground, and sold the surviving inhabitants into slavery. Gallic Wars Gallic Wars, series of military campaigns from 58 to 51 bc in which Roman armies, led by Gaius Julius Caesar, conquered Gaul, a territory that included most of modern France. Caesar set out for the Roman territory of Gaul in March of 58 bc. The Romans defeated the hostile tribe of the Helvetii in a battle at Bibracte and later subjugated other tribes. Within two years Caesar had conquered all of Gaul between the Rhine and the Atlantic Ocean. But a few years later, a rebellion broke out under the command of a chief named Vercingetorix. In this war Caesar suffered some defeats, but in the end stamped out the revolt.

Level 2: Roman Culture Recreation and entertainment: Baths- baths were meant for leisure and social gathering. In the bath buildings could be found: hot pools, cold pools, towels, steam rooms, saunas, exercise rooms, libraries, hair cutting salons…. Chariot Racing- chariot racing was a very popular and favorite sport of men in chariots pulled by either two or four horses. Gladiatorial Combats- the easiest way to describe gladiators are: they were men (usually slaves or prisoners) who were trained to fight and pretty much kill other people in combats for Roman entertainment. Stage Performances- stage performances were plays of either comedy or tragedy. At first there were only performances on holidays and religious festivals (it later became more common). Calendar terms: Kalends- Kalends fell on the first day of the month. Nones- Nones was the 7th day of the thirty-one-day months (March, May, July and October), and the 5th day of the other months. Ides- Ides fell on the 15th day of thirty-one-day months (March, May, July and October), and on the 13th day on other months. Pridie- the day before the Nones, Ides, or Kalends was called Pridie. a.d. (ante diem)- a.d. (in lower case) stands for ante diem, a term used when naming a day in terms of its relation to either the Kalends, Nones or Ides. Government and Magistrates: Consul- the Roman republic was led by two Consuls who were joint heads of the Roman state and commanders-in-chief of the army. Dictator- in times of crisis, a Dictator could be appointed. His time in office could not be longer than six months, but for his time in office he possessed the absolute power of a king. Praetor- the Praetor was in charge of the judiciary of Rome. He acted as the chief judge, apart from the consuls. Tribune- tribunes charged with protection of lives and property of plebians; their persons were inviolable; and had the power of ―veto‖ over elections, laws, decrees of the senate, and the acts of all other magistrates (except the dictator). Fasces- the fasces were bundles of rods or sticks with an axe secured in the middle. They were carried, as symbols of power, by Roman lictors in front of certain important people. Religion: Pontifex Maximus- the Pontifix Maximus was the High Priest. His chief duty was to preside at state ceremonies, but apart from that he also oversaw the calendar and chose the vestal virgins, as well as some of the priesthoods. Augures- Augures were religious officials who interpreted natural phenomena. Military terms: Legio-legions were large group the army was split into. Castra- the soldiers fortified camps at the end of each day‘s march to protect against surprise attacks and serve as refuges in case of defeat. Legatus- lieutentants were officers in military. Impedimenta- every legion brought its own baggage train and constructed its own camp every evening at the side of the road. Ceremonies: Weddings- Roman marriages were private, resting on the consent of the two partners. The wedding ceremony itself held no legal value but was used to indicate a marriage. Funerals- funerals were generally organized by professional undertakers who provided the mourning women, musicians, and sometimes dancers and mimes.

et al. --(et alii.) and others vs. -- versus ad astra -- to the stars per aspera -- through adversities (through the thorns) caveat emptor -- let the buyer beware status quo - the state in which (literal), the present state of things ars longa -- art (work) is long vita brevis -- life is short e.g. -- (Exempli gratia) for example N.B. -- (nota bene) note well, observe carefully a.m. – (ante meridiem) before noon p.m. -- (post meridiem) after noon E pluribus unum -- one out of many tempus fugit -- time flies carpe diem -- seize the day i.e. -- (id est) that is to say A.D. -- (Anno Domini) in the year of the Lord Veni vidi vici -- I came, I saw, I conquered Summa cum laude -- With highest honor per annum -- yearly Plaudite Omnes – All applaud Me Paenitet – Sorry/I am sorry Eamus – Let‘s go Bene respondisti – I answered well. Ignosce mihi – Pardon me. Surge – Rise/Get up Quid novi? – What is new Adsum – I am present Quota hora est – What time is is? Sol Lucet – The sun is shining Quis est – Who is it? Quid est – What is it? Minime – too small Vale – Farewell Ita vero – certainly Quid est nomen tibi – What is your name? Quid agis – What are you doing? Salve – Hello!,